1. Poetry What is poetry?
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PublicationDespite Dickinson's prolific writing, fewer than a dozen of her poems were published during her lifetime. After her younger sister Lavinia discovered the collection of nearly eighteen hundred poems, Dickinson's first volume was published four years after her death. Until the 1955 publication of Dickinson's Complete Poems by Thomas H. Johnson, her poems were considerably edited and altered from their manuscript versions. Since 1890 Dickinson has remained continuously in print. Contemporary A few of Dickinson's poems appeared in Samuel Bowles' Springfield Republican between 1858 and 1868. They were published anonymously and heavily edited, with conventionalized punctuation and formal titles.[112] The first poem, "Nobody knows this little rose", may have been published without Dickinson's permission.[113] The Republican also published "A narrow Fellow in the Grass" as "The Snake"; "Safe in their Alabaster Chambers –" as "The Sleeping"; and "Blazing in the Gold and quenching in Purple" as "Sunset".[114][115] The poem "I taste a liquor never brewed –" is an example of the edited versions; the last two lines in the first stanza were completely rewritten for the sake of conventional rhyme.
In 1864, several poems were altered and published in Drum Beat, to raise funds for medical care for Union soldiers in the war.[116] Another appeared in April 1864 in the Brooklyn Daily Union. [117] In the 1870s, Higginson showed Dickinson's poems to Helen Hunt Jackson, who had coincidentally been at the Academy with Dickinson when they were girls.[118] Jackson was deeply involved in the publishing world, and managed to convince Dickinson to publish her poem "Success is counted sweetest" anonymously in a volume called A Masque of Poets.[118] The poem, however, was altered to agree with contemporary taste. It was the last poem published during Dickinson's lifetime. PosthumousAfter Dickinson's death, Lavinia Dickinson kept her promise and burned most of the poet's correspondence. Significantly though, Dickinson had left no instructions about the forty notebooks and loose sheets gathered in a locked chest.[119] Lavinia recognized the poems' worth and became obsessed with seeing them published.[120] She turned first to her brother's wife and then to Mabel Loomis Todd, her brother's mistress, for assistance.[111] A feud ensued, with the manuscripts divided between the Todd and Dickinson houses, preventing complete publication of Dickinson's po The first volume of Dickinson's Poems, edited jointly by Mabel Loomis Todd and T. W. Higginson, appeared in November 1890.[122] Although Todd claimed that only essential changes were made, the poems were extensively edited to match punctuation and capitalization to late 19th-century standards, with occasional rewordings to reduce Dickinson's obliquity.[123] The first 115-poem volume was a critical and financial success, going through eleven printings in two years.[122] Poems: Second Series followed in 1891, running to five editions by 1893; a third series appeared in 1896. One reviewer, in 1892, wrote: "The world will not rest satisfied till every scrap of her writings, letters as well as literature, has been published".[124] Two years later, two volumes of Dickinson's letters, heavily edited, appeared. In parallel, Susan Dickinson placed a few of Dickinson's poems in literary magazines such as Scribner's Magazine and The Independent. Between 1914 and 1929, Dickinson's niece, Martha Dickinson Bianchi, published a new series of collections, including many previously unpublished poems, with similarly normalized punctuation and capitalization. Other volumes edited by Todd and Bianchi followed through the 1930s, gradually making more previously unpublished poems available. The first scholarly publication came in 1955 with a complete new three-volume set edited by Thomas H. Johnson. It formed the basis of all later Dickinson scholarship. For the first time, the poems were printed very nearly as Dickinson had left them in her manuscripts.[125] They were untitled, only numbered in an approximate chronological sequence, strewn with dashes and irregularly capitalized, and often extremely elliptical in their language.[126] Three years later, Johnson edited and published, along with Theodora Ward, a complete collection of Dickinson's letters.
PoetrySee: Emily Dickinson at Wikisource for complete poetic works Dickinson's poems generally fall into three distinct periods, the works in each period having certain general characters in common. Pre-1861. These are often conventional and sentimental in nature.[127] Thomas H. Johnson, who later published The Poems of Emily Dickinson, was able to date only five of Dickinson's poems before 1858.[128] Two of these are mock valentines done in an ornate and humorous style, and two others are conventional lyrics, one of which is about missing her brother Austin. The fifth poem, which begins "I have a Bird in spring", conveys her grief over the feared loss of friendship and was sent to her friend Sue Gilbert.[128] 1861–1865. This was her most creative period—these poems are more vigorous and emotional. Johnson estimated that she composed 86 poems in 1861, 366 in 1862, 141 in 1863, and 174 in 1864. He also believed that this is when she fully developed her themes of life and death.[129] Post-1866. It is estimated that two-thirds of the entire body of her poetry was written before this year.[129] etry for more than half a century.[121] Structure and syntax The extensive use of dashes and unconventional capitalization in Dickinson's manuscripts, and the idiosyncratic vocabulary and imagery, combine to create a body of work that is "far more various in its styles and forms than is commonly supposed".[3][130] Dickinson avoids pentameter, opting more generally for trimeter, tetrameter and, less often, dimeter. Sometimes her use of these meters is regular, but oftentimes it is irregular. The regular form that she most often employs is the ballad stanza, a traditional form that is divided into quatrains, using tetrameter for the first and third lines and trimeter for the second and fourth, while rhyming the second and fourth lines (ABCB). Though Dickinson often uses perfect rhymes for lines two and four, she also makes frequent use of slant rhyme.[131] In some of her poems, she varies the meter from the traditional ballad stanza by using trimeter for lines one, two and four, while only using tetrameter for line three. Since many of her poems were written in traditional ballad stanzas with ABCB rhyme schemes, some of these poems can be sung to fit the melodies of popular folk songs and hymns that also use the common meter, employing alternating lines of iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter.[132] Familiar examples of such songs are "O Little Town of Bethlehem" and "Amazing Grace'". Dickinson scholar and poet Anthony Hecht finds resonances in Dickinson's poetry not only with hymns and song-forms but also with psalms and riddles, citing the following example: "Who is the East? / The Yellow Man / Who may be Purple if he can / That carries the Sun. / Who is the West? / The Purple Man / Who may be Yellow if He can / That lets Him out again."[130] Late 20th-century scholars are "deeply interested" by Dickinson's highly individual use of punctuation and lineation (line lengths and line breaks).[119] Following the publication of one of the few poems that appeared in her lifetime – "A narrow Fellow in the Grass", published as "The Snake" in the Republican – Dickinson complained that the edited punctuation (an added comma and a full stop substitution for the original dash) altered the meaning of the entire poem.[114]
As Farr points out, "snakes instantly notice you"; Dickinson's version captures the "breathless immediacy" of the encounter; and The Republican's punctuation renders "her lines more commonplace".[119] With the increasingly close focus on Dickinson's structures and syntax has come a growing appreciation that they are "aesthetically based".[119] Although Johnson's landmark 1955 edition of poems was relatively unaltered from the original, later scholars critiqued it for deviating from the style and layout of Dickinson's manuscripts. Meaningful distinctions, these scholars assert, can be drawn from varying lengths and angles of dash, and differing arrangements of text on the page.[133] Several volumes have attempted to render Dickinson's handwritten dashes using many typographic symbols of varying length and angle. R. W. Franklin's 1998 variorum edition of the poems provided alternate wordings to those chosen by Johnson, in a more limited editorial intervention. Franklin also used typeset dashes of varying length to approximate the manuscripts' dashes more closely.[125] Title divine- is mine! The Wife- without the sign! Acute Degree- conferred on me- Empress of Calvary! Royal- all but the Crown! Betrothed- without the swoon God sends us Women- When you- hold- Garnet to Garnet- Gold- to Gold- Born- Bridalled- Shrouded- In a Day- “ My Husband”- Women say- Stroking the Melody- Is this- the way?
The Stillness in the Room Was like the Stillness in the Air- Between the Heaves of Storm- 61 The Eyes around- had wrung them dry- And Breaths were gathering firm For the last Onset- when the King Be witnessed- in the Room-
What portion of me be Assignable- and then it was There interposed a Fly- With Blue- Blue- uncertain- stumbling Buzz- Between the light – and me- And then the Windows failed- and then I could not see to see- 285 I felt a Funeral ,in my brain , And Mourners to and fro Kept treading—treading—till it seemed That Sense was breaking through—
A Service ,like a Drum— Kept beating—beating—till I thought My Mind was going numb— And then I heard them lift a Box And creak across my Soul With those same Boots of Lead ,again , Then Space—began to toll , As all the Heavens were a Bell , And Being ,but an Ear , And I ,and Silence ,some strange Race Wrecked ,solitary ,here— And then a Plank in Reason ,broke , And I dropped down ,and down— And hit a World ,at every plunge , And Finished knowing—then— ADRIENNE RICH I am not the wheatfield nor the virgin forest
yet I am of it now In my decent collar, in the daguerreotype I pierce its legend with my look My hands wring the necks of prairie chickens I am used to blood When the men hit the hobo track I stay on with the children My power is brief and local but I know my power. Appendix I Glossary of Literary & Critical TermsAlexandrine : Is the term given to the iambic hexameter ( twelve syllables beginning with an unstressed syllable, then a stressed one ). Allegory: a kind of narrative which attempts to convey a moral concept in a convincing way. Alliteration : may be defined as the initial rhyme in contrast to the ordinary rhyme which comes at the end of the line. It occurs when two or more words close to each other begin their accented syllable with the same consonant. E.g. The fair breeze blew, the white form flew, The furrow free. The following line is often taken as an example of alliteration:
balanced one against the other. E.g. In power unpleased, impatient of disgrace: A fiery soul, which, working out its way, Fretted the pigmy body to decay, And over-informed the tenement of clay. A daring pilot in extremity; Pleased with danger, when the waves went high. He sought the storm; but for a calm unfit Would steer too nigh the sands to boats his wit. Great wits are sure to madness near allied, And thin partitions do their bounds divide; Else why should he, with wealth and honor blest, Refuse his age the needful hours of rest? Punish a body which he could not please; Bankrupt of life, yet prodigal of ease (Dryden).
And shining so round and low; You were bright! all bright ! but your light is failing You are nothing now but a bow.(I. Inglow) Archaism : is the use of words, spelling, constructions … etc. that are out of date. It may be used when an old-fashioned atmosphere is relevant and deliberately aimed.
E.g. : Tennyson’s “ Ulysses “, Spencer’s “ Faerie Queen “, Shelley’s “ Eve of St. Mark” , Scott’s “ Ivanhoe “, Thackeray’s “ Edmond” Assonance: is the sound, which is heard when two, or more in corresponding metrical positions contain the same accented vowel, but have different consonants following it, as in “ late … sane “. Blank Verse : is unrhymed verse written in iambic pentameters. Broken Rhyme : is the breaking of a word at the end of a verse so as to produce a rhyme. Cacophony: is a term used to characterize harsh, unpleasant combination of sound. Caesura: is the pause in the metrical line which is not due to metrics but rather to the natural rhythm of the language. Caricature: is a descriptive representation in which the beautiful is perverted and the defects exaggerated. Closed couplet: is the term given to two successive verses rhyming “aa” and containing a complete independent idea. Conceit : is a term used to designate a fanciful idea or conception usually expressed through an elaborate analogy, and showing a striking parallelism between two seemingly different things. Epigram : is a brief and pointed saying, one which conveys much meaning in few words. Terseness is the natural characteristic of epigram. Verbal contradiction may be used to command attention and urge the reader to consider for himself the important truth as disguised.
tombstone or monument. It is used in literature to convey a similar meaning . It was used by Gray at the end of his “ Elegy written in a country churchyard “.A. E. Housman and Ben Johnson, as well as many others , wrote whole poems in the form of epitaphs. Euphemism : is a substitution of a less harsh or disagreeable word or phrase for a more accurate but less offensive one; it is pleasantness of speech.
Must be provided for. (meaning killed ) (Shakespeare); And,
Fleance, his son … Must embrace the fate Of that dark hour. (meaning killed ) (Shakespeare). Fable: Is a brief tale, in poetry or prose, conveying a certain moral value. It is often derived from folklore, and so appears childish. The characters are often animals who speak and act like human being. Figures of Speech : are used, whether in prose or verse, to secure variety. They may be used consciously, and are called “ ornamental “; and they may used unconsciously , and are then, called “ organic “. In any literary work , the organic use of the figure of speech is better as it is more natural and appears to form part of the given experience; but the ornamental use of the figures of speech given the impression that it is artificial and superimposed. The difference between the organic and ornamental uses of the figures of speech is quite vividly seen in Shakespeare’s plays. In his early plays , Shakespeare introduced the different figures of speech to ornament his style; but later, he become a great master of the organic use of these figures of speech.
form in favor of cadence; this poetry rests upon the substance rather than the form. The free verse poet seeks to isolate the essential, and convey it to the reader stripped and absolute. The result will be differentiated from prose not so much by is quality of song as by reality capture in a lightning flash. Free verse become widely known after world war I. It gained more strength when a new school, the imagists, adopted this way of versification.
lines consisting of five iambic feet (iambic pentameters) and rhyming together.
and it employs a looser metro and a more varied style,. Though it usually has a single hero, it may bring in number of other characters allowing them to pass through a number of adventures Edmund Spenser’s “ The Faire Queen “ is the most important in English literature. It is written in the Spenserian stanza .
iambic lines rhyming alternately . Gray used this stanza in his well-known “ Elegy in a Country Churchyard “, the first stanza of which runs as follows : The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, The lowing herd winds slowly over the lea, The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me. There are many other forms of quatrain, which are fairly common in English verse; they differ only in the length of the line and in the measures. Tenyson in his “In Memoriam” uses an example of these. It consists of four octosyllabic lines rhyming “babe”. Shakespeare used it as in the following: To the last syllable of recorded time; And all our yesterdays have lighted fools. The way to dusty death. out, out brief candle ! Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage. And then is heard no more; it is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing. ( Shakespeare ) Metrical Auxiliaries : (Assonance, Alliteration, Rhyme ). Assonance, Alliteration and rhyme are not so essential to English verse, but they are at the same time of great importance in indicating the structure and defining the rhythm of successive verses, and in linking them together. Assonance plays a very unimportant role in English verse. Alliteration which was once the essential part in versification survives only as an element in the harmony of verse, As for rhyme, it is quite important now in the writing of verse, and it seems that it will remain so for quite a long time in spite of the criticism it has been subject to. Mock – Heroic : is the treatment of a trivial incident with mock gravity with all the conventional machinery of the epic. Eg : Pope’s “The Rape of the lock “. Gray’s “ Ode on the death of a Favorite Cat “.
and,
Millions of acres on us, till our ground, Singing his pate against the burning zone, (Shakespeare).
This figure has been much used in literature: E.g. The sun’s rim dips; the dark. (Coleridge) And,
I charge you by the law Where of you are a well-deserving pillar. (Shakespeare) The use of metaphors as a figure which produces picturesque effect can be seen in the following example from Macbath: To morrow, and to – morrow, and to-morrow, Creeps in this pretty pace from day to day, Onomatopoeia : is the accordance of sound with sense, it is seen in such words as “ bang “, “ cuckoo “, “ whisper “, “ hush “, “ ping pong “ , “ slap “, “ hiss “, “ buzz “, “ whistle “, … etc, which suggest their sound. In verse it is a device used for effect, often associated with alliteration. Sometime, onomatopoeia is a natural element in the rhyme and style of the passage in which it occurs, and sometimes it is wrought with more deliberate art. E.g The moan of doves in immemorial elms And murmur of innumerable bees. (Tennyson) And, I heart the water lapping on the crag, And the long ripple washing through the reed. (Tennyson) Onomatopoeia may even be found in stanzas in Kate’s “ La Belle Dame Sans Merci”, a short line, gives the effect of a thing which is kept off and thus gives a feeling of mystery. Ottava Rime : Consists of eight iambic pentameter lines. It was introduced by Sir Thomas Wyatt who imported it from the Italian. The rhyme is Ababa bcc. Longfellow used it in his “ Birds Kellingworht” It was the season when through all the land. The merle and the mavis build, and building sing Those lovely lyrics, written by his hand. Whom Saxon Caedmon calls the blitheheart king When on the boughs the purple buds expand, The banners of the vanguard of the spring, And rivulets, rejoicing, rush and leap, And wave their fluttering signals from the steep.
And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true (Tennyson) and,
Thin for ever (Shakespeare). Paradox: is a seemingly absurd though perhaps really well founded statement; it has been described as “ a truth doing a somersault”. Ex.: HE who goes against the fashion is himself its slave; (L.P.Smith)
For any job I’m willing; Take here and there a dusty brown, And here and there a dusty brown, And here and there a shilling. The things I’ve done neath moon and stars Have got me into messes: I’ve torn up prison dresses: I’ve sat, I’ve gloom’d, I’ve glanced With envy at the swallows That through the window slid, and danced. Quite happy round the gallows; But out again I come, and show My face nor care a stave, For trades are brisk and trades are slow, But mine goes on for ever. (Charles start Calvary’s “ Wanderers”: a parody of Tennyson’s Brook,
Pathetic Fallacy: is the personification of Nature so strongly that it may be regarded as taking a definite interest in human action. E.g. Earth flat the Wound, and Nature from her seat. Sighing through all her works, gave sings of woe, That all was lost. (Ruskin) Personification: is a kind of metaphor in which an inanimate object or abstract thing is personified and looked at as a human being. E .g. But lo! the morn in russet mantle clad, Walks over the brow of yon high eastern hill (Shakespeare) And,
70 The powers that serve the bright - hared Queen Are confident and gray: Clouds at her bidding disappear; Points she to ought, the bliss draws near And fancy smoothes the way.. (Wordsworth) And, Next, Anger rushed, his eyes on fire, In lightning’s owned his secret strings; In one rude crash he struck the lyre And swept with hurried hand the strings. (Collins) And, Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much, Wisdom is humble that he known no more. (Cowper)
An article to read The Sonnet, Subjectivity, and Gender Diana E. Henderson Works Cited Beer Patricia. An Introduction to the Metaphysical Poets. London: Macmillan, 1972. Dawood Marie. From Wyatt to Milton: A critical survey. Cairo: Anglo Egyptian 1972 Gill, Richard. Mastering English Literature. New York: Plgrave, 1995. Main, C.F.,and peter Seng. Poems California: Wadsworth, 1978 Reeves ,James. The Critical Sense: Practical Criticism of Prose and Poetry. London: Heinemann, 1982 English Poetry". Anti Essays. 3 Sep. 2012 http://www.antiessays.com/free-essays/91254.htm Wikipedia, the Free encyclopedia http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/sidney.htm Download 1.7 Mb. Share with your friends:
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