A review paper on different routing protocols of vanets
Unique attributes of VANETs
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- Challenges and requirements in VANETs
- Applications
- DIFFERENT ROUTING PROTOCOLS
- 2.1) Geocast Based Routing Protocols
- 2.2) Broadcast Based Routing Protocols
- 2.3) Cluster Based Routing Protocols
- 2.4) Position Based Routing Protocols
Unique attributes of VANETs
Predictable mobility Providing safe driving, improving passenger comfort and enhancing traffic efficiency No power constraints Variable network density Rapid changes in network topology Large scale network High computational ability Challenges and requirements in VANETs Signal fading Bandwidth limitations Connectivity Small effective diameter Security and privacy Routing protocol Applications Vehicle to vehicle and Vehicle to infrastructure communications allow the development of a large number of applications and can provide a wide range of information to drivers and travelers. Categories: Comfort and entertainment applications: This category of applications aims to improve drivers and passengers comfort levels (make the journey more pleasant) and enhance traffic efficiency. They can provide drivers or travelers with Weather and traffic information Detail the location of the nearest restaurant, petrol station or hotel and their prices Passengers can access the internet and send or receive instant messages or play online games while the vehicle is connected to the infrastructure network Security services: Intersection collision avoidance Public safety Sign extension Vehicle diagnostics and maintenance Information from other vehicles DIFFERENT ROUTING PROTOCOLS A vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) uses cars as mobile nodes in a MANET to create a mobile network. A VANET turns every participating vehicle into a wireless router or node, allowing vehicles approximately 100 to 300 meters of each other to connect and, in turn, create a network with a wide range. The routing protocols in VANET are broadly classified into the following four categories:- Cluster based routing protocols Broadcast based routing protocols Geocast based routing protocols Position based routing protocols
In [17], the routing in Mobile Ad-hoc Networks was described. Routing in mobile Ad-hoc networks is quite a challenging task since the nodes move arbitrarily, have limited power back, topology changes and lack of other resources. In other routing protocols there is lot of routing overhead due to the flooding of the messages. This routing protocol is based on location information in which neighboring nodes which are in the forwarding zone will rebroadcast route request packet and send a route reply to the source. In this paper location tracking and on demand protocol was used. There are many methods of locating the mobile nodes like Radio location techniques, Global Positioning System (GPS), the Bat system, the Cricket Compass system and RADAR. This work has made the combination of the location tracking mechanism that has been configured in the real MANET test bed with geocasting capability. Each mobile node (MN) has run the location tracking program and stored the positioning table at the nodes itself in a file. The data was in sequence and started with the MAC address, IP address and the distance to each neighbor from MN. In [2], a protocol named GeoTORA was proposed, as it was derived from the Temporarily Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) (unicast) routing protocol. Flooding is also incorporated in GeoTORA, but it is limited to nodes within a small region. This integration of TORA and flooding can significantly reduce the overhead of geocast delivery, while maintaining reasonably high accuracy. TORA is one of a family of link reversal algorithms for routing in ad hoc networks. For each possible destination in the ad hoc network, TORA maintains a destination-oriented directed acyclic graph (DAG). In this graph structure, starting from any node, if links are followed in their logical direction, the path leads to the intended destination. TORA uses the notion of heights to determine the direction of each link. Despite dynamic link failures, TORA attempts to maintain the destination oriented DAG such that each node can reach the destination. To implement GeoTORA, they firstly modified TORA to be able to perform anycast. To perform an anycast, an anycast group is defined - anycast group consists of a subset of the nodes in the network. When a node sends a message to the anycast group, the message is delivered to any one member of the anycast group. As simulation results show, this integration of TORA and flooding can significantly reduce the geocast message overhead as compared to pure flooding, while achieving high accuracy of geocast delivery. In [18], a protocol was proposed that extends existing geocast protocols by supporting a packet delivery system through the use of adequate flooding. In simple flooding, there are redundant retransmissions of geocast messages, increasing network traffic, potentially resulting in broadcast storms. The paper proposed a solution to this problem as follows. Rather than having all nodes participate in the packet transmission, only the nodes that satisfy following two conditions: those that have a transmission range that is larger relative to the average transmission range, and those that are able to cover areas that are still uncovered. As a consequence, this approach helps reduce the number of transmissions. To stop a node accepting duplicate packets, a unique sequence numberis associated with each packet, which is compared with previously recorded (source, sequence) pairs. The sequence number is a combination of the MAC address of the sender and the time the packet was sent. The protocol uses simple logical comparisons based on a node’s transmission range. The decision is made using two matrices. The Map matrix provides the information about the covered and uncovered areas within the region, while the Coverage matrix represents the area that a node can cover by its transmission range. Simulation results showed that by eliminating the redundant retransmissions, the protocol reduces data traffic and overhead significantly, when compared with simple flooding. In [10] Vehicular delay-tolerant network (VDTN) architecture was introduced to deal with connectivity constraints. VDTN assumes asynchronous, bundle-oriented communication, and a store-carry-and-forward routing paradigm. A routing protocol for VDTNs should make the best use of the tight resources available in network nodes to create a multi-hop path that exists over time. A VDTN routing protocol, called GeoSpray, was proposed, which takes routing decisions based on geographical location data, and combines a hybrid approach between multiple-copy and single-copy schemes. First, it starts with a multiple-copy scheme, spreading a limited number of bundle copies, in order to exploit alternative paths. Then, it switches to a forwarding scheme, which takes advantage of additional contact opportunities. In order to improve resources utilization, it clears delivered bundles across the network nodes. It is shown that GeoSpray improves significantly the delivery probability and reduces the delivery delay, compared to traditional location and non location-based single-copy and multiple-copy routing protocols. In [14] GeoCross, a simple, yet novel, event-driven geographic routing protocol is proposed that removes cross-links dynamically to avoid routing loops in urban Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs). GeoCross exploits the natural planar feature of urban maps without resorting to cumbersome planarization. Its feature of dynamic loop detection makes GeoCross suitable for highly mobile VANET. We have also shown that caching (GeoCross + Cache) provides the same high packet delivery ratio but uses fewer hops. In [15] different VANET applications are considered to make the routing protocol. The comfort application drives the threats of new entertainments for vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs). The contentment application usually keeps the delay-tolerant facility; that is, messages initiated from a specific vehicle at time t can be delivered through VANETs to some vehicles within a given constrained delay time λ. In the paper, a new mobicast protocol is discussed to support contentment applications for a highway scenario in vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs). All vehicles located in a geographic zone at time t, the mobicast routing is to disseminate the data message initiated from a specific vehicle to all vehicles which have ever appeared in the zone at time t. This data dissemination must be done before time t+λ through the carry-and-forward technique. In addition, the temporary network fragmentation problem is considered in protocol design. In addition, the low degree of channel utilization is kept to reserve the resource for safety applications. To illustrate the performance achievement, simulation results are examined in terms of message overhead, dissemination successful rate, and accumulative packet delivery delay. 2.2) Broadcast Based Routing Protocols Broadcast based routing protocols include simple flooding techniques or selective forwarding schemes to counter this network congestion. Following are listed some of the research papers based on broadcast based routing. In [12] a new VANET routing protocol is proposed, which tries to reduce the effect of broadcast storm problem in VANETs. As the number of vehicles becomes above a certain value, the probability of packet collisions and medium contentions among vehicles which try to connect, get increased. The proposed technique, namely Selective Reliable Broadcast protocol (SRB), try to limit the number of packet transmissions, by selecting neighboring nodes, acting as relay nodes. So the number of vehicles to which the packet will be forwarded gets reduced, without affecting network performance. SRB uses the vehicular partitioning behavior to select forwarding nodes. Each cluster is automatically detected as a zone of interest, whenever a vehicle is approaching, and packets will be forwarded only to selected vehicles, opportunistically elected as cluster-heads. The main strengths of SRB are the efficiency of detecting clusters and selecting forwarding nodes in a fast way, in order to limit the broadcast storm problem. Simulation results have been carried out both in urban and highway scenarios, to show the effectiveness of SRB, in terms of cluster detection and reduction of number of selected forwarders. In [19], an efficient form of flooding to overcome problems such as collision, redundancy and medium contention was described. In high density network, linkage is very high and extreme nodes coverage resulted in packet collisions and limited channels to cope with the network congestions in the limited channels in DSRC. To ease network traffic, opposite direction nodes are used to relay the emergency messages where an immobile sender node broadcasts the message to adjacent moving nodes. These nodes will keep relaying the message until the final hop and the final node will transmit the message to a recipient node. The combination of location based and time reservation based methods ensures high delivery and lower end-to-end delay of packet delivery. A node calculates it’s waiting time from the given time window that allows farthest node in the relay node's range to have the waiting time of the border node. Information losses could occur both in low node and high node density, resulted from packet drops. In low node density, packet drops increase due to low connectivity, thus contribute to low success rate of receptions. In high node density, packet collisions and channel fading also contribute to the increase in packet loss which leads to low success rate of receptions by next relay nodes. In this paper, the time reservation-based method calculates the time reservation ratio provided for each node and chooses a node with the lowest ratio to be the next relay node. However, if there is more than one node receiving lowest duplicate packets, then the nodes distances from the border will be compared and the node nearest to the border will be chosen. 2.3) Cluster Based Routing Protocols In cluster based routing, several clusters of nodes are formed. Each cluster is represented by a cluster head. Inter-cluster communication is carried through cluster heads whereas intra-cluster communication is made through direct links. Following are listed some of the research papers based on cluster based routing. In [11] it is said that developing multi-hop routing protocols for urban VANETs is a challenging task due to many factors such as frequent network disconnections. Many VANET routing protocols use a carry-and-forward mechanism to deal with the challenge. However, this mechanism introduces a large packet delay, which might be unacceptable for some applications. So in the paper first the unique features of urban VANET have been analyzed. They move like clusters due to the influence of traffic lights. So, the concept of using buses as the mobile infrastructure to improve the network connectivity is proposed. A novel routing protocol named MIBR (Mobile Infrastructure Based VANET Routing Protocol)is also proposed. This protocol makes full use of the buses, making them a key component in route selecting and packet forwarding. Simulation results show significant performance improvement in terms of packet delivery ratio and throughput. In [13] the energy constraint is considered to form the protocol. To save energy, various routing protocols for VANETs have been proposed in recent years. However, VANETs impose challenging issues to routing. These issues consist of dynamical road topology, various road obstacles, high vehicle movement, and the fact that the vehicle movement is constrained on roads and traffic conditions. Moreover, the movement is significantly influenced by driving behaviors and vehicle categories. To this end, all these behaviors are incorporated into routing and ERBA for VANETs– an energy-efficient routing protocol is proposed. ERBA classifies vehicles into several categories, and then leverages vehicle movement trends to make routing recommendation. It predicts the movement trends by current directions and next directions after going through the road intersections. With the vehicular category information, the driving behavior patterns, the distance between the current sections and the next intersections, ERBA propagates information among vehicles with less energy consumption. The proposed scheme is validated by real urban scenarios extracted from Shanghai Grid project. Experimental results have shown that ERBA outperforms the compared routing protocols with respect to the end-end delay, the packet delivery ratio and the path duration time. In [16] one of the critical issues considered is the design of scalable routing algorithms that are robust to frequent path disruptions caused by vehicles’ mobility. The paper argues the use of information on vehicles’ movement information (e.g., position, direction, speed, and digital mapping of roads) to predict a possible link-breakage event prior to its occurrence. Vehicles are grouped according to their velocity vectors. This kind of grouping ensures that vehicles, belonging to the same group, are more likely to establish stable single and multi hop paths as they are moving together. Setting up routes that involve only vehicles from the same group guarantees a high level of stable communication in VANETs. The scheme presented in the paper also reduces the overall traffic in highly mobile VANET networks. The frequency of flood requests is reduced by elongating the link duration of the selected paths. To prevent broadcast storms that may be intrigued during path discovery operation, another scheme is also introduced. The basic concept behind the proposed scheme is to broadcast only specific and well-defined packets, referred to as “best packets” in the paper. The performance of the scheme is evaluated through computer simulations. Simulation results indicate the benefits of the proposed routing strategy in terms of increasing link duration, reducing the number of link-breakage events and increasing the end-to-end throughput. In [21], a novel K-hop Cluster-Based Location Service (KCLS) protocol in mobile ad hoc networks was presented, which is able to well balance the trade-off between the communication overheads and the accuracy of location information. It provides capability of cluster-level self-route recovery against interlink failures because the clustering architecture based on cluster ID has flexible scalability in support of large scale ad hoc networks and it reduce the overheads by the use of simple cluster level route and also provide more accurate location information within the cluster and nearby neighborhoods. The proposed KCLS protocol not only suppress the increasing rate of the total cost when the number of hosts in the network increases but also increases the hit probability of location service and reduces the passive effect of host mobility on control overhead as well. Scalability was good and can self discover the networks. In [20], a cluster based routing protocol dubbed Traffic Infrastructure Based Cluster Routing Protocol with Handoff (TIBCRPH) was proposed. All of the nodes are deployed in two-dimension space. Each node is location aware through some types of positioning services. There is a location service mechanism which enables the source to detect position and velocity of destination node. Links are bidirectional. TIBCRPH is also high enough and the adaptability to the change of node speed is better than other protocols. 2.4) Position Based Routing Protocols Position based/geographic routing employs the awareness of vehicle about the position of other vehicles to develop a routing strategy. In [3], a Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR) was proposed in which greedy forwarding method is used in which the neighbor which is closest to the destination is used for forwarding the packet. All devices have GPS which provides the current location of the nodes and helps in packet forwarding decision. Each node has information about current position of other nodes and also its neighbors and the neighbors also help in making the packet forwarding decision. GPSR protocol is divided into two parts, 1) greedy forwarding and the other is 2) perimeter forwarding. 1) In greedy forwarding the node that is closest to the destination is used to send the data. As the sender node knows the destination node so the greedy nodes are chosen (nodes closer to destination) till the packet is delivered to the destination. 2) Perimeter forwarding is used where the greedy forwarding fails that is where there no node closest to the destination. In perimeter forwarding the nodes in void region are used to forward the packet to the destination. And use the right hand rule in that case. In “right hand rule”, the paths are traversed in the clockwise direction in the void regions in order to reach the destination. In case of the vehicular nodes the greedy forwarding method is highly unsuitable owing to their high mobility it’s very difficult to maintain the next hop neighbor information as it may go out of range. As a consequence it will lead to the packet loss. GPSR suffers from one more problems that is the beacons may be lost due to channel destruction or bad signal. As a result it can lead to removal of neighboring formation from location table. As a repair strategy when greedy forwarding fails GSPR uses planarized graphs. But these too perform well only in highway scenarios where there are no radio obstacles due to its distributed algorithm. In case of a lot of radio obstacles and their distributed nature may lead to certain partition of network and may lead to packet delivery impossible. In [4], a new routing protocol named AODV-VANET was proposed, which incorporates the vehicles’ movement information into the route discovery process based on Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV). A Total Weight of the Route is introduced to choose the best route together with an expiration time estimation to minimize the link breakages. The main idea of the proposed routing protocol is to incorporate the VANET features into AODV for the route discovery process. These characteristics include position, speed, acceleration, direction of the vehicle and the link quality between the communicating vehicles. AODV is chosen above all of the other reactive MANET routing protocols due to its ability to quickly react to network changes. On top of that, it has an efficient route discovery method that allows intermediate nodes, which have a valid route to the destination node, to reply to requests messages. In particular, the changes are made to the AODVUU version of the MANET routing protocol. One way to determine whether a intermediate vehicle should be chosen to route data packets is by examining whether it is within the radio range long enough so as to send all the needed data packets. After the route discovery process, the best route from the source to the destination nodes is chosen. However, along the connection path, a link breakage still occurs if an intermediate routing vehicle leaves the radio communication range. To avoid link ruptures and to establish reliable routes, the expiration time of the chosen route is estimated and initiates a new route discovery process before the link breaks. In [5], a new position-based routing strategy was proposed with the consideration of nodes moving direction for VANETs, called DGR (Directional Greedy Routing) and considering the fact that vehicles often have predicable mobility, its extension PDGR (Predictive Directional Greedy Routing) is proposed to forward packet to the most suitable next hop based on both current and predicable future situations. Directional Greedy Routing is based on greedy forwarding under the consideration of nodes movement. It consists of the two forwarding strategies, Position First Forwarding and Direction First Forwarding. In DGR, when calculating weighted score for choosing next hop, we only take into account the packet carrier’s current neighbors. In fact, a further prediction by considering the packet carrier’s possible future neighbors can make routing more efficient. Simulation results have shown DGR and PDGR outperform GPSR significantly in the terms of packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay and routing overhead. Also these two strategies outperform GSR. PDGR outperforms DGR slightly because of the use of prediction. In [6], a scheme that secures geographic position-based routing was provided, which has been widely accepted as the appropriate one for vehicular communication. It integrate security mechanisms to protect the position-based routing functionality and services (beaconing, multi-hop forwarding, and geo-location discovery), and enhance the network robustness. It proposes defense mechanisms, relying both on cryptographic primitives and plausibility checks mitigating false position injection. The implementation and initial measurements show that the security overhead is low and the proposed scheme deployable. Position-based routing provides multi-hop communication in a wireless ad hoc network. It assumes that every node knows its geographic position, e.g. by GPS, and maintains a location table with ID and geographic positions of other nodes as soft state. PBR supports geographic unicast (GeoUnicast), topologically-scoped broadcast (TSB, flooding from source to nodes in n-hop neighborhood), geographically-scoped broadcast (GeoBroadcast, packet transport from source to all nodes in a geographic area) and geographically-scoped anycast (same as GeoBroadcast, but to one of the nodes in the area). Basically, PBR comprises three core components: beaconing, a location service, and forwarding. This paper has presented a solution to secure a position-based routing protocol for wireless multi-hop communication in vehicular ad hoc networks. This solution combines digital signatures/certificates, plausibility checks, and rate limitation. Digital signatures on a hop-by-hop and end-to-end basis provide authentication, integrity and non-repudiation. Plausibility checks reduce the impact of false positions on the routing operation. Rate limitation reduces the effect of packet injection on a large part of the network. A main characteristic of the solution is its deploying ability due to usage of well-established security mechanisms. In [7], a spatially aware packet routing approach is proposed to predict permanent topology holes caused by spatial constraints and avoid them a forehand. This approach is generic and can be used in combination with any existing geographic forwarding protocol as an extension. The use of a wireless mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is motivated to build an inter-vehicle communication system. These multi-hop networks consisting of vehicles on the road allow to locally exchanging vehicle, traffic and environment data to realize novel cooperative driver assistance applications and safety functions. The routing of data packets (i.e. the addressing and forwarding of messages) inside such an inter-vehicle radio network is performed best by a position-based routing protocol. However, most existing position-based routing protocols do not take into account the spatial environment of the ad hoc network and its impact on the mobile nodes' (or vehicles) geographic distribution. In this paper, Spatially Aware Routing (SAR) is presented, a new routing approach that makes use of spatial awareness for packet forwarding. Relevant spatial information, like the road network topology is extracted from existing geographic databases, like digital maps, to generate a simple graph-based spatial model. Based on the spatial model, a Source node can predict static topology holes caused by spatial constraints, like road geometry and layout of the mad network. The sender then selects a Geographic Source Route to avoid these holes in packet forwarding. The simulation results show that basic SAR can effectively improve routing performance in situations with permanent topology holes. In [8], the improved greedy traffic-aware routing protocol (GyTAR) was introduced. GyTAR is an intersection-based geographical routing protocol that is capable of finding robust and optimal routes within urban environments. Each vehicle in the network knows its own position and speed using GPS and can determine the position of their neighboring intersections through preloaded digital maps, which provides a street-level map. And also each vehicle is required to maintain a neighbor table where the position, velocity, and direction of each neighboring vehicle are recorded. This table is built and updated owing to the periodic exchange of Hello packets by all vehicles. GyTAR scheme is organized into three mechanisms: 1) a completely decentralized scheme for the estimation of the vehicular traffic density in city roads; 2) a mechanism for the dynamic selection of the intersections through which packets are forwarded to reach their destination; and 3) an improved greedy forwarding mechanism between two intersections. Hence, using GyTAR, packets will successively move closer toward the destination along the streets where there are enough vehicles providing connectivity. The GyTAR protocol efficiently utilizes the unique characteristics of vehicular environments, like the highly dynamic vehicular traffic, the road traffic density, and the road topology, in making routing and forwarding decisions. The selection of intermediate intersections among road segments is dynamically and sequentially performed based on the scores attributed to each intersection. The scores are determined based on the dynamic traffic density information and the curve metric distance to the destination. The traffic density information for intersection score calculation is a decentralized mechanism in GyTAR to dynamically estimate nearly accurate vehicular traffic along traffic roads, with a very low percentage of error. The optimum values for the weighting factors of the traffic density and distance information components in the intersection scores are evaluated, and their sensitivity is analyzed, showing a good balance between these two parameters. Simulation results show that GyTAR performs better in terms of throughput, delay, and routing overhead, compared with other protocols (LAR and GSR) proposed for vehicular networks. [9]In case of the intersection node the greedy mode is changed to the predictive mode. This protocol suffers from the local maximum problem for which right hand rule is used to forward the packet to the intersection for the decision-making. CONCLUSION This paper has provided a summary of vehicular ad hoc networks discussing their characteristics and motivations with a study of VANET routing protocols that target vehicle to vehicle communication. This paper provides four categories of VANET routing protocols that exist since previous couple of years, giving a brief discussion of the protocol working. This review paper has given differences among major classifications of routing protocols. In this brief study on various VANET routing protocols; different related research issues and challenges/difficulties are represented that require more effort and research to address them. REFERENCES 1. Al-Sultan S, et al. A comprehensive survey on vehicular Ad Hoc network. Journal of Network and Computer Applications (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnca.2013.02.036i 2. Y. Ko and N.H. Vaidya, GeoTORA: A protocol for geocasting in mobile ad hoc networks, Proc. of the 8th International Conference on Network Protocols, November 2000. 3. Karp B. and Kung H, Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing for Wireless Networks, Proceedings of the Sixth Annual ACM/IEEE International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking (MobiCom 2000), pp. 243-254, Boston, MA, August, 2000. 4. Xi Yu, et al. A Reliable Routing Protocol for VANET Communications, 2011 IEEE. 5. Jiayu Gong, et al. Predictive Directional Greedy Routing in Vehicular Ad hoc Networks, 27th International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems Workshops, 2007 IEEE. 6. Festag A, et al. Secure Position-Based Routing for VANETs, 2007 IEEE 7. Tian J, et al. Spatially Aware Packet Routing for Mobile Ad Hoc Inter-Vehicle Radio Networks, 2003 IEEE. 8. Jerbi M, et al. Towards Efficient Geographic Routing in Urban Vehicular Networks, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 58, NO. 9, NOVEMBER 2009. 9. Lee K, et al. Enhanced Perimeter Routing for Geographic Forwarding Protocols in Urban Vehicular Scenarios, In Proc. Of AutoNet'07, Washington, DC, Nov.2007. 10. V.N.G.J. Soares et al., GeoSpray: A geographic routing protocol for vehicular delay-tolerant networks, Informat. Fusion (2011), doi:10.1016/j.inffus.2011.11.003 11. Luo J, et al. A Mobile Infrastructure Based VANET Routing Protocol in the Urban Environment, 113 IEEE computer society, 2010 IEEE DOI 10.1109/CMC.2010. 12. Vegni A,et al. SRB: A Selective Reliable Broadcast Protocol for Safety Applications in VANETs. [Research Report] 2012. 13. Zhang D, et al. An Energy-Efficient Routing Protocol Using Movement Trends in Vehicular Ad hoc Networks. Computer Journal. 56(8):938-946. doi:10.1093/comjnl/bxt028, 2013 14. Lee K, et al, GeoCross: A geographic routing protocol in the presence of loops in urban scenarios, Ad Hoc Netw. (2010), doi:10.1016/j.adhoc.2009.12.005 15. Chen Y, et al. 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Wang T, Wang G, TIBCRPH: Traffic Infrastructure Based Cluster Routing Protocol with Handoff in VANET, 19th annual Wireless and optical communication conference (WCC), IEEE Digital Library, pp 1-5, 2010. 21. Leng S, et al. A Novel Location-Service Protocol Based on k-Hop Clustering for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks. 22. http://adrianlatorre.com/projects/pfc/img/vanet_full.jpg 23.http://www.seminarsonly.com/electrical%20&%20electronics/Intervehicle%20Commun ication.jpg Directory: admin -> resources -> project -> paper paper -> Survey of manet based on Routing Protocols paper -> Mimics the movement of Real Insects paper -> Dynamic algorithm for Load balancing in a hierarchical Cloud Computing Network Pinki 1, Nida2 paper -> Enhancement of Resource Recommendation System with Graph Based Using som sandeep Pradhan Mr. Sandeep Gonnade paper -> Android Operating System paper -> Big Data: Applications in Governmental Services Ms. Mamta Arora paper -> Digital image watermark key extraction with Encryption and Decryption Scheme in matlab paper -> Automatic Spray Painting paper -> Dynamic redundancy management of multipath routing for intrusion tolerance in heterogeneous wireless sensor networks paper -> Human Action Recognition Download 417.79 Kb. 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