Regions
/Countries
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Importance in region
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Typical farm size (ha)
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Main crop types and annual yields (t/ha in 2005) (WRI, 2009)
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Inputs, kg/ ha N, P K, other agrochemicals – data from WRI datasets
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Main environmental concerns
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NAFTA
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Dominate arable production
Eastern United States – arable and pastoral systems
Central US wheat belt
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192 ha in US, 24 ha in Mexico
Average national maize yields in Mexico are less than 2 t/ha, compared with 10-12 t/ha in the US.
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Key crops: grain, maize, wheat, barley.
Cereals – 5.68 t/ha
The area cultivating maize increased by 0.5% while the total area under other cereals decreased by 2.9%. Wheat production was around 20% less because of poor
weather, amounting to 44 million tonnes
US 2005 cereal yields – 6.54 t/ha
Canada 2005 cereal yields – 3.03 t/ha
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Fertilizer use is very high in the US where 25.278 t * 10^9 of nutrient were used in 2005 (WRI, 2009). Fertiliser use intensity is 109 kg/ha (WRI, 2009)
This also applies to the intensive livestock and arable farming in NAFTA.
Canada used 1.787 t * 10^9 of nutrient fertiliser in 2005 (WRI, 2009). This equates to an intensity of 53.7 kg/ha (WRI, 2009).
This represents a less intensive production system with a high level of fertiliser use.
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GHG emissions
Competition for water, water pollution
Significant (historic) loss of native habitat
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EU
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Dominate arable production
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1.2 ha in Malta to 143.0 ha in Slovakia
EU average 16.5 ha
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Key crops: wheat and barley; oilseed rape and potatoes; field beans and peas
In UK, wheat, barley, potatoes, oil seed rape and sugar beet are major tillage crops.
Cereal yields in 2005 (WRI, 2009)
UK – 7.23 t/ha
Italy – 5.43 t/ha
Netherlands – 8.15 t/ha
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N, with P and K where necessary. Variety of pesticides including herbicides, insecticides, fungicides.
Lime, manure, slurry, other organic inputs such as compost, paper waste
Fertiliser use is high, particularly of N. In areas, this has led to designation of areas as Nitrate Vulnerable Zones in UK. Here, fertiliser use in 2006 was 1.502 t * 10^9 which is a high level of fertiliser in line with Canada (WRI, 2009). The intensity of use in 2005 was 287.5 kg/ha,
In the UK in 2007, fertiliser consumption was as follows (all figures in kg/ha)
Wheat: N (190), P (31), K20 (39)
Spring and winter barley: N (234), P (71), K2O (108)
Potatoes: N (131); P (130) and K2O (199)
Oilseed rape: N (189), P (30) and K2O (38)
Sugar beet: N (92); P (41) and K2O (104)
(All figures from Defra, 2007)
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Water quality, GHG emissions
Soil loss due to combination of low organic matter, removal of landscape features including hedges, exposed, bare seed beds over winter, poor cultivation practices leading to increased runoff, poor drainage and compaction
Localized loss of biodiversity through intensive production, pesticide use and decline in soil organic matter
Localized and catchment-specific N and pesticide water pollution – Nitrate Vulnerable Zones covered 70% of England, United Kingdom in 2009 (Defra, 2009).
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Countries in transition
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Dominate arable production
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2,500 to 25,000 acres
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Key crops: wheat and rye
Cereals production in 2005 Croatia – 4.50 t/ha
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N, with P and K where necessary. Variety of pesticides including herbicides, insecticides, fungicides.
Lime, manure, slurry, other organic inputs such as compost, paper waste
Fertiliser use is low.
Slovakia used 112 kg * 10^6 nutrients in 2006 (WRI, 2009) – low level of use
Intensity 110.4 kg/ha (WRI, 2009).
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Oceania
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Coastal areas in SE, S and SW Australia – arable and pastoral systems; rest of Australia semi-natural arid grassland; Queensland - tropical agriculture and sugar cane; large area of non agricultural land
NZ: combination of dairy and decreasing lamb production; regionally important arable, wine and fruit production
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246 ha in NZ and
3,127 ha in Australia
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Key crops: wheat
Cereals production in – 2.07 t/ha
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N, with P and K where necessary. Variety of pesticides including herbicides, insecticides, fungicides.
Lime, manure, slurry, other organic inputs such as compost, paper waste
In 2006, Australia used 1.903 t * 10^9. of nutrient fertiliser. This is a high level of fertiliser use. Intensity in 2005 was 44.5 kg/ha – which is rather low compared to the total nutrient consumption.
In New Zealand, intensity in 2005 was 309.4 kg/ha – intensive due to intensity of dairy farming
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Soil erosion, water quality, GHG emissions
Salinisation
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A report to the EU Commission Directorate Generale for the Environment on the environmental impact of dairy farming in the European Union classifies dairy farms under three main categories based on fertilizer use, farm size, herd size, milk yield, livestock density and main winter fodder used (European Commission, 2000). Environmental impact and the importance of each system to dairy production are also considered. The categories are:
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Farms which account for the greatest environmental impact, as well as providing the majority of milk in the EU in 2000;
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Farms with a neutral environmental impact, where around a tenth of all EU milk is produced;
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Farming systems which are ‘ecologically valuable’, despite having the ultimate goal of maintaining dairy production. These account for minimal EU milk production.
In the EU, a trend for increasing intensity of dairy production is being seen, with production centering around fewer but more intensive farms. As a result of this increasing intensity, high stocking rates, more mineral fertiliser and pesticide use and increasing mechanization occur. These can lead to point source pollution of water bodies, as well as diffuse pollution and pressure on sensitive habitats and landscapes (European Commission, 2000).
In a similar manner to the EU, milk production in the US and Canada has risen due to greater output from fewer cows and increased efficiency in productivity per cow as a result of enhanced genetics. Mexican herds are smaller, yet the development of ultra-high temperature (UHT) milk products has instigated the growth of large-scale dairies serving Mexico City and other urban areas.
The industry has grown particularly in central California, the Mountain West and the Great Plains, and has decreased in presence in the southeast and the northeast. There is still a large dairy industry in the upper Midwest, but not to such an extent as in previous decades. The average size of herd remains around 60 cows.
The future of the intensive dairy farming system is concerned with methane (CH4) emissions, a GHG with a global warming potential (GWP) 25 times greater than carbon dioxide (CH4). During the process of enteric fermentation, ruminant livestock produce CH4 which contributes 15% to the global total. Animal manure is also a source of CH4. In addition, nitrogen emissions from animal manure are greater than emissions from N fertiliser used in agricultural production (Bouwman et al., 2006). It will be a challenge to find a solution to the GHG emissions associated with this system; indeed, the human population require dairy products as part of a balanced diet, so further research might examine the level of wastage of dairy (and beef livestock) products in order to re-assess global supply and demand for such products.
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