REPORTED SPEECH (INDIRECT SPEECH)

If we report what another person has said, we usually do not use the speaker’s exact words (direct speech), but reported (indirect) speech. Therefore you need to learn how to transform direct speech into reported speech. Check what you need to change.

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  Pronouns
  
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  Present tense verbs (3^rd person singular)
  
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  Place and time expression
  
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  Tense (back shifts)
  
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  Direct speech: “I speak English”
  
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  Reported speech (no backshifts). He says that he speaks English
  
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  Reported speech (backshifts) he said that he spoke English
  
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  Pronouns: in reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun depending on who says what. Eg: she says, “my mom doesn’t have time today”—she says that her mom doesn’t have time today.
  
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  Tenses: no backshift. No change if introduction is simple present. Eg—he says—form of present tense verb (3^rd person singular may be changed). Eg—he says, “I speak English”—he says that he speaks English. Backshift change tense if introductory clause is in simple past. Eg—he said. This is called backshift. Eg—he said, “I am happy”—he said that he was happy.
  

For place and time expressions you have to check whether place and time are the same in direct and reported speech or not. Illustration:

It is Friday and you meet Rahul at a movie theatre. Rahul tells you that he saw Agneepath in this theatre today. (“I saw Agneepath here today”). A few minutes later Prashant joins you and you want to report what Rahul has told you. Place (here) and time (today) are the same and you can say: Rahul said that he had seen Agneepath here today.

A day later you meet Hrishikesh at the same theatre, place (same) time (different)—Rahul said that he had seen Agneepath here yesterday. Few days later, to Nitesh at telephone from your home. Place (different) time (different)—Rahul said that he had seen Agneepath at the theatre on Friday.

I met Rahul in a theatre on Friday and he said that he had seen Agneepath there that day.

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  With interrogative: direct speech—“why don’t you speak English”? reported speech—he asked me why I didn’t speak English.
  
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  Without interrogative: direct speech—“do you speak English”? reported speech—he asked me whether / if I spoke English. He said, “she lives in London”. – he said that she lived in london. He asked, “where does she live”? – he asked where she lived. He asked, “does she live in London”? – he saked whether / if she lived in london.
  
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  Requests: in requests, tenses are not relevant. Simply use, to + infinitive verb. Eg: she said, “say hello to your mum”—she asked me to say hello to my mum.
  
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  For negative requests, use not to + infinite verb. Eg: he said, “don’t give up, Bob”—he advised bob not to give up.
  
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  If two complete main clauses are connected with and or but, put that after conjunction. Eg: he said, “I saw her but she didn’t see me”. – he said that he had seen her but she hadn’t seen him.
  
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  If the subject is left out in the second main clause (the conjunction is followed by a verb), do not use that. Eg: she said, “I am a nurse and work in a hospital”—he said that she was a nurse and worked in a hospital.
  
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  Tense of the introductory clause is usually in past tense ie he said that---
  
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  Present tense is often used to report a conversation that is still going on, eg—during a phone call or while reading a letter.
  

I	Speak	English
Subject	Verb	Object
I	Can speak	english

I	Will tell	You	The story	At school	Tomorrow
Subject	Verb	Indirect object	Direct object	Place	time

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  Word order in negative sentences (we usually need an auxiliary verb)—I will not tell you the story at school tomorrow.
  
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  Word order in subordinate clauses (conjunction are often used between two clauses)—I will tell you the story at school tomorrow because I don’t have time now.
  
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  Position of time expression: (recently, now, then, yesterday) adverbs of time are usually put at the end of the sentence (above example). If you don’t want to put emphasis on time then—tomorrow I will tell you the story.
  
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  Time expressions like always, never, usually, are adverbs of frequency. Usually put before the main verb (except for ‘be’as a main verb)
  

Subject	Auxiliary	Adverb	Main verb	Object, place or time
I		Often	Go swimming	In the evening
He	Doesn’t	Always	Play	Tennis
We	Are	Usually		Here in summer
I	Have	Never	Been	abroad

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  Position of adverbs: manner eg slowly, carefully, awfully. These adverbs are put behind the direct object (or behind the verb if there is no direct object)
  

Subject	Verb	Direct object	Adverb
He	Drove	The car	Carefully
He	drove

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  Adverbs of place: here, there, behind, above (approach is similar to that of manner)
  
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  Adverbs of time : recently, now, then, yesterday (at the end of the sentence)—I will tell you the story tomorrow
  
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  Adverbs of frequency: always, never, seldom, usually. Put directly before the main verb. If ‘be’is the main verb and there is no auxiliary verb, adverbs of frequency are put behind be.
  

Subject	Auxiliary be	Adverb	Main verb	Object, place or time
I		Often	Go swimming	In the evening
He	Doesn’t	Always	Play	Tennis
We	Are	Usually		Here in summer
I	Have	Never	Been	Abroad

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  If noun is singular countable article must be used (John is a teacher; a man came to my house yesterday)
  
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  A or an must be used for noun complement which includes professions (he was a great man; he is an actor)
  
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  If we want to say something about speed or price (I bought these onions five rupees a kilo; the speed of the train is fifty miles an hour)
  
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  In exclamatory sentence before singular and countable nouns (what a fine sketch!; what a great shot!)
  
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  Before the word ‘most’when it is used in the sense of very or much or exceeding (sreedhar is a most intelligent student; this is a most unfortunate event)
  
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  Before a singular countable noun which is used as an example to represent a class (a cow is useful animal) note: man or woman when used in general sense to represent mankind as a whole, never takes articles (man is mortal and not a man is mortal; woman is man’s better half and not a woman is man’s better half)
  
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  With the words a lot of, a couple, a great many, a good deal of, a good many, a great deal of, a few, a little, etc. when they mean ‘some amount’and á small number’(a few books were in the library; a lot of people have attended the party)
  
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  In certain phrase a cold, a pain, etc; with certain numbers a hundred, a million, etc
  
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  A mr. bose denotes a person who is called bose, and implies that he is a stranger to the speaker. Mr bose with á’implies that the speaker knows mr bose, or knows of his existence.
  
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  Before a proper noun to make it a common noun (mohan is a newton of our class).
  
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  Before certain uncountable nouns preceded by nouns + of. (a piece of advice, a drop of water, etc)
  
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  A or an is not used before plural nouns (books, universities); uncountable nouns (advices, informations); names of meals (let us have a dinner)
  
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  The is used before the names of the historical or public buildings, names of rivers, names of seas, oceans, certain chains of mountains, deserts, newspapers & magazines, group of islands, certain countries)
  
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  Before a noun denoting a hospital, temple, school, college, prison, etc. if its purpose or use is not referred to or say if not used in its primary purpose. Eg: he has gone to the hospital to visit a friend, where he is employed(here he went to hospital to meet his friend not because of illness)
  
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  Before an adjective in the superlative degree (Michael is the tallest boy in the class)
  
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  Before an adjective in the comparative degree, where the selection of one out of only two persons. Eg—nalini is more beautiful (the more beautiful) of the two girls in the class .
  
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  With nouns indicating what is unique. (the sun, the moon, etc)
  
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  Certain adjectives to give plural meaning. The rich = rich people.
  
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  Certain adjectives indicating nationality. The Spanish = Spanish people.
  
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  Before only and ordinal numbers.
  
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  Before a noun when special emphasis is needed. This is the novel I am talking about (particular novel)
  
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  Before a common noun to give it the meaning of an abstract noun. (at last the father in him prevailed and excused him)
  
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  In special comparatives. The more you earn the more you spend.
  
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  Before; musical instruments, certain well known or sacred books, certain countries each of which is a union of smaller units, north, south, etc when they are used as nouns, name of political parties, date of month, parts of the body which are used in place of possessives.
  
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  When we generalize about members of a group we use no article. If we talk about the group “as a whole”as if it is a well known unit we use ‘the’. Eg: nurses mostly work hard—the nurses have never gone on strike.
  
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  When talking about physical environment or climate, some kinds of things that are part of everybody’s lives.
  
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  The is not used before the names of meals, before common nouns used in pairs (day and night, husband and wife), before the words father, mother, aunt, uncle in general sense.
  
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  No articles to be used before the nouns which are after prepositions.
  
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  Articles with nouns: four possible conditions involved in identifying a noun (whether definite or indefinite) see the matrix.
  

	Writer / speaker knows	Reader
Definite: shall we go to the movie?	Yes	Yes
Indefinite: I saw a terrible accident today	Yes	No
Indefinite: I heard that you have a house in jubilee hills	No	Yes
Indefinite: I need to buy a raincoat	No	no

There are five principle ways by which a reader can know about the definiteness of the nouns which is being referred.

1. 
   The nouns has been previously mentioned: I saw a terrible accident today (first mention—indefinte). I have never seen such an accident in my life (second mention, accident in general). The accident made me really afraid (third mention, definite).
   
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   A superlative degree or ranking adjective makes the noun identity specific. The tallest boy in the class is 6’0 tall. (there can be only one boy who is the tallest)
   
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   The noun describes a unique person, place or thing: the earth revolves around the sun once every 365 days. (there is only one earth and only one sun in our solar system)
   
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   A modifying word, phrase, or clause follows the noun and makes it clear which specific person or thing you are referring to. Note- but not every noun that is modified in this way is definite. It depends largely on the situation and on what you can reasonably expect your listener / reader to know about.
   
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   The content or situation makes the noun identity clear
   

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  Uncountable nouns only takes ‘the’or no article. Many nouns have both count and non count uses—food & dress.
  

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  Some nouns are used only in the singular form. No plural form exists. But they may take a plural verb. – they bought some new furniture X for the office (furniture)
  
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  When a plural noun denotes a specific amount, length, weight, quantity, etc considered as a whole the verb must be in singular form.—three litres of water are X too much for me to drink (is).
  
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  There are some nouns which are used only in the plural form and take only plural verb.—the scissors has X two part (have).
  
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  Some nouns have the same form for the plural as well as the singular. –a large number of the fishes X died due to the pollution of water (fish)
  
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  Some nouns have got ‘s’at their end, but these are used as singular.—physics are X very difficult to understand. (is)
  
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  Some nouns are always used in plural (cattle, public, police, people, etc)—the police is X moving fast (are)
  
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  Material nouns are not used in plural form.—ornaments are made of golds X (gold)
  
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  Apostrophe (‘) is never used with lifeless object.—what is your book’s price X. (what is the price of your book)
  
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  We use (‘s) with certain dignified objects and abstract nouns. – we give you back money for honesty X sake (honesty’s)
  
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  When there are two nouns in apposition the possessive case will be formed bu adding (‘s) to the second noun.—Einstein, the scientist’s equation changed the dynamics of physics.
  

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  If a single quality is compared between two persons more or most are to be used. Eg: she is wiser than her brother (more wiser).
  
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  When two qualities of a single person or a single thing are compared more is used with the first adjective even if it is a single syllable word. Eg: he is wiser than shrewd. (more wise)
  
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  Double comparatives or superlatives are no longer used. Eg: these shoes are more preferable than those. (preferable to)
  
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  The adjective which gives absolute sense do not take more or most with them. Similarly, we cannot say, “more parallel”or “more square”or “more unique”etc. eg: this idea is more universal than that (universal)
  
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  Junior, senior, inferior, prefer, preferable, superior, elder are followed by to and not by than. Eg: my sister is elder to me.
  
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  The speed of this car is greater than the old one X—the speed of this car is greater than that of the old one. (we cannot compare speed of the car with car)
  
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  When comparative degree is used in the superlative sense we should use ány other’if we are comparing the things or person of the same group.
  
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  Use any if the comparison is with the things or person outside the group.
  
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  If two qualities of a person are mentioned both should be in the same degree of comparison.
  
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  When two adjectives in different degrees of comparison are used in the same sentence both should be complete in itself
  
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  Comparative degree should be used while comparing two and superlative degree when we compare more than two
  
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  When than or as are followed by the first and the second person pronouns verb can be omitted but not in the case of the pronouns of third person (he is not as clever as his brother is)
  
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  In a sentence if we want to modify a noun or a pronoun we must use an adjective and not an adverb. Please don’t feel badly about it (bad).
  
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  Due to and prior to should be used as predicative adjective. In passive voice use ‘because of’in active use ‘due to’.
  
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  Verbs of sensation are followed by a predicative adjective which modifies the noun or pronoun.
  
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  Further-farther: further denotes in addition to farther ‘distance away from a place’
  

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  A pronoun must agree with its antecedent—one followed by one; everybody, nobody, anybody—his; if second (you) and third (he) are used as pronouns following pronouns should be ýou’, ýour’etc; if first (I) and second (you) the following pronoun will be óur’.
  
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  If the pronoun is the complement of to be, it should be in the subjective case.
  
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  Let is a verb so it is followed by the objective case of the pronoun. Let you and he work together (him).
  
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  If a pronoun is the object of a preposition it should be in the objective case. Between and besides are pronoun. Eg: this is between you and I (me).—besides I none else was there (me)
  
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  Pronoun who is used when the verb is in active voice. There are many girls whom we know are flirts (who)
  
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  Pronoun whom is used when the verb related to it is in passive voice. Who are you calling? (whom)
  
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  If a relative pronoun is used in subjective and objective cases (who, whom) we cannot put one pronoun in place of two. He met a foreigner who he knew and was a famous singer X (he met a foreigner whom he knew and who was a famous singer)
  
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  When a pronoun follows ‘than’ or as its case is decided by imaging the verb and completing the sentence. He is better placed than me (I am)
  
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  The same should not be used in place of a pronoun. After reading this book return the same to me. (it)
  
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  When the following verbs are used reflexingly a reflexive pronoun must be put after them—acquit, absent, enjoy, apply, avail, resign, over-react, excert. He enjoyed during the bus journey (enjoyed himself)
  
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  Reflexive pronoun is not used after the following verbs: bathe, break, make, lengthen, stop, steal, feed, qualify, gather, hide, burst, roll, rest, turn, speed, open, move. Keep. He kept himself away from the dispute (remove away)
  
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  Reflexive pronoun cannot be used in place of a noun but when we say I my self saw him (myself is not the substitute for the subject) Deepak and myself will work together (I).
  
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  That is used in preference to who and which in the following cases: a) after adjective in the superlative dgree b) after the word like all, same, nothing and only c) after interrogative pronouns d) after two antecedents one denoting a person and the other a thing or an animal
  
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  After such and same pronoun as or that are used
  
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  Whose should not be used for lifeless things
  
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  A relative pronoun should be put as close to the noun it refers as is possible
  
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  The noun like manner and way should be followed by in which
  
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  Each other for two. One another for more than two
  
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  A noun or pronoun in the posseissive case should not be used with an abstract noun.
  
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  Rule 123 (first person first—second person next—and third person last) while confessing a fault )or expressing a negative idea) the sequence of the personal pronoun should be in the above order. You , he and I are at fault and will be punished ( I, you, and he are at fault and will be punished)
  
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  Rule 321 (third person first, second person next and first person last) while expressing a positive idea or a praise, this should be the sequence. I , you and he wil get an award for the good work we have done (he , you and i)