Case 1 introduction

[16.1] The source of Neisseria meningitidis is the nasopharynx of human carriers who exhibit no symptoms. The ability of this bacterium to colonize the respiratory mucosa is associated with its ability to synthesize which of the following?

[16.2] Several Neisseria species are a part of the normal flora (commensals) of the human upper respiratory tract. Which of the following statements accurately describes the significance of these bacteria?

[16.3] A 22-year-old man presents to the STD clinic with a 5-day history of burning on urination and a 3-day history of a nonpurulent urethral discharge. He is sexually active with many female partners and does not use condoms. There is no history of prior sexually transmitted diseases. Laboratory findings from endourethral exudate are most likely to show which of the following?

[16.4] The two pathogenic Neisseria species, N. meningitidis and N. gonorrhoeae, differ from the nonpathogenic Neisseria species in that:

[16.1] E. Both Neisseria gonorrhoeae and N. meningitidis adhere to the mucous membrane tissues by means of pili (short protein appendages from the membrane through the cell wall). Coagulase and lipase are products of Streptococci, whereas collagenase and hyaluronidase are enzyme products of Streptococci.

[16.2] A. The normal or usual flora seldom cause disease in humans, except the several species that may be opportunistic in the right circumstances. One mechanism that has been suggested as to how the normal flora help to protect humans from pathogenic strains of bacteria is to stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies (or CMI) that would recognize related pathogens and inhibit their growth. An unexplained component of this mechanism is how the normal flora continue to exist as part of the body flora in spite of these immune mechanisms.

[16.3] B. This presentation is classic for gonorrhea infection and symptoms. Abundant gram-negative diplococci will be found both intracellularly and outside of the phagocytic cells. Interestingly, gonococci may even divide within the phagocytic cell. This evidence (Gram stain of the exudate) is presumptive evidence of gonococcal infection, and treatment should be made immediately. Such a specimen should be positive for culture with the correct medium (e.g., Thayer-Martin) and incubation conditions (37C, increased CO² atmosphere). Serotypes AC refers to N. meningitidis, and elementary bodies would indicate Chlamydia microorganisms.

[16.4] D. Neisseria gonorrhoeae and N. meningitidis are true human pathogens, surviving best in the human host. They are more fastidious in their nutritional requirement, requiring an enriched selective medium for growth. All Neisseria are oxidase positive. Normal flora (nonpathogenic) Neisseria will grow at room temperature on simple medium. Because of beta-lactamase production, sensitivities should be done to ensure proper antimicrobial selection for treatment.
CASE 17

INTRODUCTION

A 35-year-old woman presents to the emergency department with right flank pain. She reports that she had a few days of urinary urgency, frequency, and burning which she tried to treat herself by drinking cranberry juice. Earlier today she started having a severe, colicky pain on her whole right side. She has had a fever, and when she urinated this morning she noticed that it appeared to have blood. She's had a few urinary tract infections (UTIs) in the past but nothing like this. She is on no medications regularly and has no other significant medical history. On examination, she has a temperature of 37.5C (99.5F), her other vital signs are normal, and she appears to be in pain. Notable on examination is some tenderness on the right flank but no masses, rebound tenderness, or guarding on palpation of her abdomen. She has costovertebral angle tenderness on the right side but not the left. Her peripheral white blood cell count is elevated. A urinalysis shows the presence of leukocyte esterase, blood, and a high pH. An abdominal CT scan reveals an obstructing stone in the right ureter causing hydronephrosis of the right kidney.

 What organism is likely to be responsible for this infection?

 What is the cause of the high pH of this patient's urine?

 Organism most likely to be responsible for this infection: Proteus mirabilis.

 Mechanism of high pH in urine: Proteus produces urease, which splits urea into CO2 and ammonia, raising the urinary pH.

Summary: A 35-year-old woman presents with a UTI and nephrolithiasis (kidney stones). The urine has a high pH.

CLINICAL CORRELATION

Introduction

Proteus species are normal flora of the gastrointestinal tract and predominantly associated with hospital-acquired urinary tract infections as well as bacteremia, osteomyelitis, empyema, and neonatal encephalitis. Proteus causes UTIs after urethral contamination with fecal bacteria followed by ascension into the bladder. Most infections occur in patients with structural abnormalities or long-term catheters of the urinary tract. Proteus infections can result in significant renal damage by several mechanisms. Proteus produces large amounts of urease, which breaks down urea into carbon dioxide and ammonia and results in elevated urinary pH levels. High urinary pH can contribute to direct renal toxicity and also can result in increased urinary stone formation. Urinary stones can result in further renal damage by obstructing urine flow and serving as a focus of ongoing infection. Crystalline material tends to build up inside of a long-term catheter leading to biofilm formation. This can essentially block flow through the catheter. Proteus is also among the most common causes of bacteremia in the family Enterobacteriaceae often associated with underlying disease such as diabetes, malignancy, or heart or lung disease. Bacteremia is usually secondary to a primary UTI. Pediatric meningitis with Proteus species, especially in the first week of life, has a high mortality rate and a predilection for abscess formation when the organism gains access to the brain. It is hypothesized that the organisms gain entry into the blood through the umbilicus and from the blood they disseminated into the brain.

Definitions

 Nephrolithiasis: The presence of calculi (solid, crystalline) that develop in the kidney and pass through the genitourinary tract.

The genus Proteus includes five species, the most common of which are P. mirabilis and P. vulgaris. Proteus species are commonly found in the environment and as normal flora in the intestinal tract of humans and other animals. Proteus mirabilis, like other members of the Enterobacteriaceae family, is a nonspore-forming, facultative anaerobic, gram-negative bacillus. Proteus has fimbriae, which facilitate attachment to uroepithelium, and flagellae, which provide the motility required for ascending infection. Proteus also has the ability to transform from a single cell form to a multicell elongated (swarmer) form. The swarmer cells are more likely to be associated with cellular adherence in the kidney as demonstrated in an animal model of infection. Hemolysin, which induces cell damage by forming pores, may also play a role in establishment of pyelonephritis.

Diagnosis of a UTI is initially by the urinalysis followed by a culture. The presence of leukocyte esterase, which is an indicator of the presence of white blood cells, in this patient indicated a presumptive UTI. The increased urinary pH as well as the evidence of a stone by CT indicated an obstructive process. Gram stain of the urine may be helpful if a significantly large number of organisms are present in the urine (greater than 105 colonies per mL). Culture of urine would likely be diagnostic after 24 hours. Members of the family Enterobacteriaceae, the most common cause of UTIs in an otherwise healthy young person, should grow rapidly on blood as well as MacConkey agars. The presence of greater than or equal to 10⁵ CFU/ml in the urine of a single organism would indicate a significant pathogen. Proteus is easily identified on a MacConkey agar plate as a clear colony (nonlactose fermenter). The obvious swarm seen on blood agar would indicate a Proteus species. Definitive confirmation of Proteus mirabilis would be made by biochemical tests included in most commercially available identification systems. A quick test to differentiate P. mirabilis and P. vulgaris would be indole positivity in the latter.

[17.1] A 78-year-old patient with an episode of acute urinary retention was catheterized. Three days later, he developed fever and suprapubic pain. Culture of the urine revealed a thin film of bacterial growth over the entire blood agar plate, and the urease test was positive. Which of the following is the most likely organism to cause this infection?

[17.2] A urinary tract infection as a result of Proteus mirabilis facilitates the formation of kidney stones because the organism:

[17.3] A 55-year-old woman is noted to have pyelonephritis with shaking chills and fever. Blood cultures are obtained, and the Gram stain is read preliminarily as consistent with Proteus species. Which of the following bacteria also may be the etiology?

[17.1] D. Proteus species produce infections in humans only when the bacteria leave the intestinal tract. They are found in urinary tract infections and produce bacteremia, pneumonia, and focal lesions in debilitated patients or those receiving intravenous infusions. P. mirabilis is a common cause of urinary tract infections. Proteus species produce urease, making urine alkaline and promoting stone formation. The rapid motility of these organisms is evidenced by "swarming," a thin film of organisms over the entire agar plate.

[17.2] D. Proteus species produce a urease, which hydrolyzes urea leading to ammonia, which alkalinizes the urine (leading to a higher pH).

[17.3] A. Both proteus and E. coli are gram-negative rod bacilli. E. coli is the most common isolate in UTIs.

A 73-year-old man with a history of hypertension and type II diabetes mellitus presents to the office with excruciating left ear pain for the past three days. He also has noticed today that his speech seems a bit slurred, and his wife says that the left side of his face looks "droopy." He has had so much pain and swelling that he hasn't been able to put his hearing aid in for several days. He has had "swimmer's ear" in the past, which responded to treatment with ear drops, but has not had any ear problems in several years. He cleans his ears daily with cotton swabs prior to putting in his hearing aid. He denies having a fever, but says that his blood sugars have been higher than usual for the past two days. On examination, his vital signs are normal, and he is in obvious pain. He has a prominent left-sided facial droop. His left ear is diffusely swollen, and he is tender on the pinna, the entire periauricular area, and mastoid. There is puru-lent drainage from the ear canal. You are unable to insert a speculum into the canal because of the swelling and pain. He has evidence of facial nerve palsy on the left side. Blood tests show an elevated white blood cell count and a markedly elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR). Your diagnosis is malignant external otitis infection.

 What organism is the most likely cause of this infection?

 Which two toxins contribute to most of the systemic toxicity of this organism?

 Organism most likely to cause this infection: Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

 Which two toxins contribute to most of the systemic signs of infection: Lipopolysaccharide endotoxin and exotoxin A.

Summary: A 73-year-old man is diagnosed with malignant otitis externa.

CLINICAL CORRELATION

Introduction

Pseudomonas causes numerous types of infections, with the common factor being that they are usually in a debilitated host. P. aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen that is most commonly associated with nosocomial pneumonia. Pulmonary infections primarily occur in patients with underlying disease such as cystic fibrosis or chronic lung or heart disease, who have immune suppression, or who are on ventilators. Skin infections occur in patients whose skin has been disrupted either by burn or trauma. Skin lesions can also be a secondary effect of disseminated disease and are known as ecthyma gangrenosum. Other common infections include urinary tract infection in catheterized patients and chronic otitis. Malignant otitis externa, a severe external ear infection, which can potentially invade through the cranial bones and nerves, is seen primarily in the elderly and in diabetics. Other complications are uncommonly a result of Pseudomonas bacteremia, such as endocarditis, meningitis, and bone and joint infections.

Approach to Suspected Pseudomonas Patient

Definitions

 Periauricular: Around the external ear.

Its lipopolysaccharide endotoxin and exotoxin A appear to cause most of the systemic manifestations of Pseudomonas disease. Exotoxin A blocks protein synthesis in host cells, causing direct cytotoxicity. It mediates systemic toxic effects as well. It is similar in function to diphtheria toxin but is structurally and immunologically distinct. Endotoxin contributes to the development of many of the symptoms and signs of sepsis, including fever, leukocytosis, and hypotension.

Antibiotic resistance is another important aspect of its virulence. It is intrinsically resistant to numerous antibiotics and has acquired resistance to others through various means. The polysaccharide capsule prevents the penetration of many antibiotics into Pseudomonas. Penetration of antibiotic into the Pseudomonas cell is usually through pores in the outer membrane. Mutation of these porin proteins appears to be a primary mechanism of its antibiotic resistance. Multidrug efflux pumps and -lactamase production also contribute to the antibiotic resistance that so frequently complicates the treatment of Pseudomonas infections.

Some P. aeruginosa strains produce a diffusable pigment: pyocyanin, which gives the colonies a blue color; fluorescein, which gives them a yellow color; or pyorubin, which gives them a red-brown color. Pyocyanin also seems to aid in the virulence of the organism by stimulating an inflammatory response and by producing toxic oxygen radicals.

Diagnosis of malignant otitis externa is by the common clinical features of otorrhea, painful edematous ear canal with a purulent discharge. Culture of the discharge from the internal ear grows P. aeruginosa in most cases. P. aeruginosa grows readily on routine laboratory media. Preliminary identification can be made by colony morphology particularly if typical green pigment is produced. P. aeruginosa appears as a clear to dark colony on MacConkey agar, indicating that it does not ferment lactose. Colonies of P. aeruginosa are -hemolytic and dark colored, as a result of pigment production and blood agar media. The organisms are motile, and therefore colonies appear spread. It does not ferment glucose, is oxidase positive, and is therefore not a part of the Enterobacteriaceae family, but is considered a nonfermenter. P. aeruginosa can be distinguished from some of the other closely related species by its ability to grow at a wide range of temperatures, up to as high as 42C. The colonies also have a distinct odor, sometimes considered a grape-like odor. Confirmatory identification can be made by numerous commercially available identification systems.

[18.1] A severely burned firefighter develops a rapidly disseminating bacterial infection while hospitalized. "Green pus" is noted in the burned tissue and cultures of both the tissue and blood yield small oxidase-positive gram-negative rods. Which of the following statements most accurately conveys information about this organism?

[18.2] The fluoroquinolone resistance seen with increasing frequency in Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections is best explained by which of the following mechanisms?