Computer Fundamentals & Programming


(w) A.D. 1998: Windows 98



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(w) A.D. 1998: Windows 98

Microsoft Company released advanced Windows 98 Operating System, which was the corrected and advanced version of Windows 95 and windows 97.


(x) AD: 2000: Windows 2000

Microsoft Company again developed and released advanced version of windows 2000 Operating System, which are being used worldwide even today.



    1. History and Development of Computer in Nepal:

Although the first electronic digital computer was built in mid 1940’s, computer was introduced in Nepal in the year 1972 only. It was introduced by Government for the population census of 1972 (2028 B.S). This was the second generation computer of IBM Company called IBM 1401. The Government had paid Rs One lakh twenty five thousand per month as rent for this computer.

The Census Department at Thapathali Kathmandu had used IBM 1401 computer for the first time to process 1 corer 12.5 lakhs population census taking 1 year, 7 months and 15 days. Later, it became essential to operate the computer for day and night, for this reason a separate branch office called Yantric Sarinikaran Kendra (Electronic Data Processing Centre), was established in 1974 (15th Paush 2031 B.S.), which, after six years, was converted to National Computer Centre (NCC).

For the population census of 1981 (B.S. 2038), a British computer ICL 2950/10 (International Computer Limited 2900 Series) which had 64 terminals was added from the aid of UNDP and UNFPA at two million American dollar from the British ICL Company. By the help of this fourth generation computer, the 1981 population census was completed within one year and 3 months.

Microcomputer such as Apple, Vector and Sirus were introduced in Kathmandu for the first time in 1982 (B.S. 2039). New companies such as Computer consultancy (CC), Management Information Processing System (MIPS) and Data System International (DSI) were established.

Since 1983 (BS. 2040) National Computer Center, on the other hand, also started giving training on programming, data entry, data processing, and development of software packages. As a result, many people from various sectors started showing their interest in the field of computers.

Since 1977 (B.S. 2034) His Majesty’s Government employed IBM 1401 computer in tourist statistical data processing, industrial data processing, statistical and loan account keeping of Agricultural Development Bank, Provident fund, SLC result processing and TU result processing, etc. After a few years, new computer ICL 2950/10 was brought in use, which was more efficient for data processing in some other corporations such as Telecommunication, Electricity Authority, Janakpur Cigarette factory, Hetauda Cement Factory, Tribhuwan University, etc. Many others like travel agencies, hotels, factories, printing presses also started using computer for better & faster work. At present, not only Kathmandu is using microcomputers but also Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Pokhara, Nepalgunj, Bhairhawa, Butwal, Hetauda, Birgunj, Biratnagar, Janakpur, Jhapa etc. are using computer for different purposes. Nowadays, computers have been used in different areas like, travel agencies, hotels, Airlines, Government offices, Banks, Colleges, Schools, Hospitals, etc. in Nepal. People are using computer even at home for day-to-day use for their personal convenience.

Now there are more than 1000 private computer-training centers all over Nepal. About 50 software development centers are working in the Nepali market. At present, in Nepal more than 1250 schools, 107 higher secondary schools, 50 general colleges, 42 IT related colleges and 4 Universities are teaching and using computer technology. More than one hundred thousand computers are busy in Nepal. More than 28 private Internet Service Provider (ISP) are providing services in the Nepali market. Nepal had started using e-mail, Internet, e-Banking and Websites since 1996 AD.

The purpose of using the computers is for word processing, keeping accounts, keeping the records and details of employees, inventory control, etc. A few software houses are involved in software development and in exporting the software to the international market (i.e. in Japan, Germany, USA, UK etc) also. Some of the private institutes and companies are involved in computer assembling, selling and distributing like in other developed countries. The scope of computer in our country is increasing rapidly day by day. In May 2000 AD, Ministry of Science and Technology, HMG had announced the national policy on IT. Similarly, HMG had announced the Cyber Law and copyright Law in Sept 2004 etc.





    1. Generations

The "Generations of computer" refers to the development step of technology of computer. It provides a framework for growth of computer industry. Initially it was classified according to the use various hardware technologies but it has now been extended to include both hardware and software. Up to now there are five computer generations. They are classified with their hardware and software technologies, characteristics and working speed which are shown by the following table.


Generation

(period)& working speed
Key hardware technologies

Key software

technologies
Key characteristics

Some representative

System


1st Generation

1942 to 1954 Second

  • Vacuum tubes;

  • electromagnetic relay memory;

  • punched cards

  • secondary storage

  • Machine and assembly languages;

  • Stored program concept;

  • mostly scientific applications

  • Bulky in size

  • Highly unreliable

  • Limited commercial use and costly

  • Difficult commercial production

  • Difficult to use

  • ENIAC

  • EDVAC

  • EDSAC

  • UNIVAC I

  • IBM 701

2ndGeneration 1955 to 1964 Mile Second

  • Transistors;

  • magnetic core memory;

  • magnetic tapes

  • Disks for secondary storage

  • Batch operating system;

  • High-level programming languages;

  • Scientific and commercial applications

  • Faster, smaller, more reliable and easier to program than previous generation system

  • commercial production was still difficult and costly

  • Honeywell 400

  • IBM 7030

  • CDC 1604

  • UNIVACLARC

3rd Generation 1965 to 1974 Micro Second

  • ICs with SSI and MSI technologies;

  • larger magnetic core memory;

  • larger capacity magnetic disks and tapes secondary storage;

  • Minicomputers upward compatible family of computer

  • Timesharing operating system;

  • standardization of high-level programming languages;

  • Unbundling of software from hardware




  • Faster, smaller, more reliable, easier and cheaper to produce

  • Commercially, easier to use, and easier to upgrade than previous generation systems

  • Scientific, commercial and interactive on-line applications

  • IBM 360/370

  • PDP-8

  • PDP-11

  • CDC 6600

4th Generation 1975 to 1789 Nano Second

  • ICs with VLSI technology;

  • microprocessors; semiconductor memory;

  • larger capacity hard disks as in-built secondary storage;

  • magnetic tapes and floppy disks as portable storage media;

  • Supercomputer based on parallel vector processing and symmetric multiprocessing

  • personal computers;

  • spread of high-speed computer networks

  • Operating systems for PCs; GUI; multiple windows on a single terminal screen;

  • UNIX operating system; C programming language;

  • Object oriented design and programming

  • PC, network-based, and supercomputing applications;

  • Small, affordable, reliable, and easy to use PCs;

  • More powerful and reliable mainframe systems and super computers

  • Totally general purpose machines;

  • Easier to produce commercially

  • Easier to upgrade

  • Rapid software development possible

  • IBM notebook

  • Pentium PC

  • SUN Workstation

  • IBMSP/2

  • SGI Origin 2000

  • Apple II, TRS-80, VAX 9000, CRAY-I, CRAY-2, CRAY-X/MP

5th Generation 1990 to now Pico Second

  • ICs with ULSI technology;

  • larger capacity main memory hard disk with RAID support larger

  • Ooptical disks as portable read-only storage media;

  • Notebook computers; powerful desktop PCs and workstations;

  • Powerful servers, supercomputers

  • The Internet

  • Cluster computing

  • Micro-kernel based, multithreading, distributed OS

  • Parallel programming libraries like MPI and PVM

  • JAVA

  • World Wide Web

  • multimedia, Internet applications

  • Portable computers

  • Powerful, cheaper, reliable, and easier to use desktop machines;

  • Powerful supercomputers mainframes

  • High uptime due to hot-pluggable components

  • Totally general purpose machines

  • Easier to produce commercially easier to upgrade

  • Rapid software development possible

IB notebooks, Pentium PCs, SUN Workstations, IBM SP/2, SGI Origin 2000, PARAM 10000


    1. Types of computer

There are various Types of computer they are classified as follows

  1. Volume wise -Super, Mainframe, Mini, Micro computer, Laptop, Palmtop

  2. Job wise -Digital, Analog, Hydride

  3. Brand wise - IBM,IBM Compatible, Apple/Macintosh

  4. Assemble wise - Branded and Assembled



    1. Computer Architecture (CPU, ALU,CU, Memory)

The computer architecture means the physical and functional design of computer. This means the design of any part of the computer system or of an entire system including hardware and software. There are five basic operation of computer system .These are

  1. Inputting:-The process of entering data and instruction to the computer system is inputting.

  2. Storing: - Saving data and instruction to the computer to make them readily available for initial or additional processing whenever required is storing

  3. Processing: - performing arithmetic operation (add, subtract, multiply, divide, etc.) or logical operation (comparison like equal to, less than, greater then, etc.)on data to convert them into useful information is processing.

  4. Out putting:- The process of producing useful information or result user such a printed report or visual display is outputting

  5. Controlling:-Directing the manner and sequence in which all of the above operation are perform is controlling.

CPUUUUUUUUU

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Control Unit

Memory


Output

Input


To perform above function there are corresponding functional unit.

  1. Input Unit: The computer hardware that accept or receive data and instruction from the user. It performs following function.

  1. Accepts (or reads) instruction and data from the user outside world.

  2. Converts these instruction data in computer acceptable form.

  3. Supplies the converted instruction and data to the computer system for further processing.

Keyboard and mouse are the examples of input device

  1. Output Unit: The hardware of the computer system which display or give result which is generated by processing of data. It performs following function.

  1. Accept the results produce by the internal devices and software, which are in coded form and hence, cannot be easily understood.

  2. Convert these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.

  3. Supplies the converted results to the user.

Monitor and printer are the examples of output device.

  1. Storage Unit: The hardware of the computer system which holds(or stores) the following:

  1. Data and instructions required for processing time which are received from input device.

  2. Intermediate results of processing.

  3. Final result processing, before they are released to an output device.

There are primary and secondary storage(memory) units. Primary memory is also known as main memory.

Primary storage

  1. Use to hold running program instructions.

  2. Used to hold data ,intermediate results ,and result of ongoing processing of job(s)

  3. Fast in operation

  4. Small capacity

  5. Expensive

  6. Volatile (looses data on power dissipation)

Secondary storage

  1. Use to hold stored program instructions.

  2. Used to hold data and information of stored jobs

  3. Slower than primary storage

  4. Large capacity

  5. Lot cheaper than primary storage

  6. Non Volatile (retains data even without)

Registers- They are additional storage locations to store data during processing time. They appear in between ALU and CU of CPU

Address- Character storage locations numbers in the main memory like a mail box numbers. Location numbers remains the same but the contents changes continuously.

  1. ALU: The device inside CPU Box which performs Arithmetical & logical calculations. It is the place where the actual execution of instruction takes place during processing/operation.

  2. Control Unit (CU): The control unit of a computer system manages and coordinates the operation of all other component of the computer system. It is like a nerves system of the body; the whole system sending signal of data program and tells to process data and to store in the right place.

  3. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CU and ALU together constitute a processing unit; It is like brain of a computer system. It is responsible for controlling the operation of all other units of a computer system. It is also called micro processor.

Note:


  1. ALU+CU=CPU

  1. A system has following three characteristics

  • It has more than one element

  • All element of a system are logically related

  • All elements of a system are controlled in a manner to achieve the system goal

A computer is a system as it comprises of integrated components (input unit, output unit, storage unit, and CPU) that work together to perform the steps called for in the executing program.



    1. RISC, CISC, EPIC

The architecture of CPUs with the small instruction set, fixed length instruction and reduce references to memory to retrieve operands is known as RISC. It is called reduce instruction set computer.

The architecture of CPUs with the large instruction set, variable length instruction and a variety of addressing mode is known as CISC. It is called complex instruction set computer.



The architecture of CPUs with the emerging technology which includes three key features, explicit parallelism, prediction and speculation is known as EPIC. It is called Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing.


    1. Working Speed Units Of The Computer:

The working speed of a computer means the speed of its processors. The CU and ALU perform operation at incredible speed. These operations are usually synchronized by the built-in electronic clock (known as system clock) that emits millions of regularly spaced electric pulse per second (known as clock cycles). It is measured in hertz .Hertz means one cycle per second. Normally, several clock cycles required to obtain, decode and execute single program instruction. Hence, the speed at which an instruction is executed is related directly to a computers built-in clock speed which is the number of pulse produce per second. This cock speed is measured in mega hertz, gigahertz. Some examples are


Class

CPU Speed

Approx year (1970 starting)

INTEL 4004

108 KHz

1970

INTEL 8080

2 MHz

1974

INTEL 8086/87

5 MHz, 8 MHz and 10 MHz

1976

INTEL 8088

4.77 MHz and 8MHz

1979

INTEL 20286/87

8 MHz, 10 MHz and 12 MHz

1982

INTEL 20386 DX

16 MHz, 20MHz and 25 MHz, 33 MHz

1985

INTEL 20386 SX/SL

16 MHz, 20MHz and 25 MHz, 33MHz

1989

INTEL 20486 DX/SX

25 MHz, 33 MHz and 50 MHz

1991

INTEL 20486 DX2

33 MHz and 66 MHz

1992

INTEL PENTIUM

60 MHz to 200 MHz

1993

INTEL PENTIUM MMX

166 200,233 MHz and 266 MHz

1997

INTEL PENTIUM PRO

166 and higher

1997

INTEL PENTIUM II

233 MHz to 450 MHz

1997

INTEL PENTIUM III

500 MHz, 750 MHz

1999

INTEL PENTIUM IV

More than 1.1 GHz up to 2.0 GHz

2000-2007

INTEL Dual Core

2.0 GHz

2008

INTEL Core 2 Duo

3.4 GHz

2008



    1. Memory Units

A device or a media that can accept data holds them and deliver as per demand at a later time is called memory. Every computer has a temporary storage built into the computer hardware. It stores instruction and data of a program mainly when the program is being executed by the CPU.The temporary storage memory is known as main memory or primary memory or simply memory. Physically, it consists of some chips either on the motherboard or on the small circuit board attached to the mother board of a computer. It is volatile and random access property.
Types of main memory:

  1. Random Access Memory (RAM):

The memory in which time to retrieve stored information is independent of the address where it is stored. It is volatile and random access memory.

Types of RAM

    1. Dynamic RAM: Very commonly used RAM. They are refreshed thousand times per sec. They are used everywhere like in printer.

    2. Static RAM- Special RAM. They are less often refreshed. They are costly than dynamic RAM.

(Computer writes on COMPASS offer reading ROM)

  1. Read Only Memory (ROM): It is non volatile memories chips in which data are stored permanently, and cannot be alerted by programmers .It holds small amount data and displays it during to start computer.

  2. PROM: A program strong empty memory chip. Once stored a program, it is permanent. Therefore PROM is non-volatile memory.

  3. EPROM (Erasable PROM) - A chip, where the program can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light.

  4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM): It is special type of EPROM that is Electrically Erasable PROM. It is a chip in which stored information erased by using high voltage of electrical pulse .it is also known as flash memory.




    1. Storage Devices:(Auxiliary or Secondary Storage Device)

The devices that store data supplements main memory of a computer are called auxiliary or secondary memory. It is generally non volatile memory and used in computer to overcome the limitations of primary storage memory. The operating speed in it is very slow and cost of per bit of storage very low than that of the primary memory. There are two types of secondary storage device.
Types of Auxiliary Storage Device:

  1. Sequential Access Device (Tape):

It is a device where the data con only be retrieved in the same sequence in which it is stored. The access time varies accorting to the storage location of the information being accessed. The example of this type of device is Tape

Tape (Sequential Type)

60 MB-24 GB




  1. Random Access Device: The storage device in which access to any stored information is direct, and approximately equal access time is required for accessing any information irrespective of its location. Magnetic, Optical and Magneto Optical disks are the the typical examples of such a storage device.




  1. Magnetic Disk

  1. Floppy Disk

Floppy (Random Access Type)

720 KB-1.44 MB




  1. Hard Disk( Zip Disk, Super Disk )

  1. Zip Disk

100 MB- 250 MB

  1. Jaz Disk (A cartridge)

2GB

  1. Super Disk (A cartridge)

120 MB




  1. Optical Disk (CD-ROM, CD-R , CD-RW, DVD Drive)

  1. CD-ROM (A cartridge)

(630 MB-1GB) (About 700 floppy;3,000,000 page texts)

  1. CD-R(Recordable)(A cartridge)

It creates CD-ROM or Audio CDs to publish.

It needs a CD-R software package.

It can read CD-R and play Audio CDs.


  1. CD-RW (A cartridge)

It is a Re-Writable CD. (Many times rewrite)

It is like a floppy disk of high storage capacity

  1. Digital Video/Versatile

It looks same as CD-ROM but has capacity of 4.7 or 8.5 GB

It is also two types DVD-R and DVD-RW




  1. Magneto-Optical Drive

Magneto-Optical Drive

(A cartridge)
It is a special type of disk drive.

It can read and write MO-Disk.

It stores 200 MB faster than CD-ROM.





  1. Pen drive

It is a compact device of the size of a pen. It plugs into a USB(Universal Serial Bus) Port of the computer

8 MB to 8 GB



Memory

Storage


Memory

Secondary Storage

Backup Storage


Prime

Memory




ROM

RAM




Serial Access

Semi-random Access


Permanent

Memory


Erasable

Memory




Disks



    • DRAM

    • SRAM



    • Masked ROM

    • PROM

    • EPROM

    • EE-PROM

    • Flash Memory

    • Floppy

    • Hard

    • CD-ROM

    • Zip Disk

    • Pen Drive



    • Zero Power

    • Non-volatile RAM

    • Zero Power

    • Non-volatile RAM

    • Magnetic Tapes

    • CCD




    1. Input Devices:

    1. Key Board, Mouse


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