Coral literature annotated bibliography

Turf algae are multispecies communities of small marine macrophytes that are becoming a dominant component of coral reef communities around the world. To assess the impact of turf algae on corals, we investigated the effects of increased nutrients (eutrophication) on the interaction between the Caribbean coral Montastraea annularis and turf algae at their growth boundary. We also assessed whether herbivores are capable of reducing the abundance of turf algae at coral-algae boundaries. We found that turf algae cause visible (overgrowth) and invisible negative effects (reduced fitness) on neighbouring corals. Corals can overgrow neighbouring turf algae very slowly (at a rate of 0.12 mm 3 wk21) at ambient nutrient concentrations, but turf algae overgrew corals (at a rate of 0.34 mm 3 wk21) when nutrients were experimentally increased. Exclusion of herbivores had no measurable effect on the rate turf algae overgrew corals. We also used PAM fluorometry (a common approach for measuring of a colony's ''fitness'') to detect the effects of turf algae on the photophysiology of neighboring corals. Turf algae always reduced the effective photochemical efficiency of neighbouring corals, regardless of nutrient and/or herbivore conditions. The findings that herbivores are not capable of controlling the abundance of turf algae and that nutrient enrichment gives turf algae an overall competitive advantage over corals together have serious implications for the health of Caribbean coral reef systems. At ambient nutrient levels, traditional conservation measures aimed at reversing coral-to-algae phase shifts by reducing algal abundance (i.e., increasing herbivore populations by establishing Marine Protected Areas or tightening fishing regulations) will not necessarily reduce the negative impact of turf algae on local coral communities. Because turf algae have become the most abundant benthic group on Curac¸ao (and likely elsewhere in the Caribbean), new conservation strategies are required to mitigate their negative impact on coral communities.

This article summarises the sometimes controversial contributions made by the different sciences to predict the path of ocean acidification impacts on the diversity of coral reefs during the present century. Although the seawater carbonate system has been known for a long time, the understanding of acidification impacts on marine biota is in its infancy. Most publications about ocean acidification are less than a decade old and over half are about coral reefs. Contributions from physiological studies, particularly of coral calcification, have covered such a wide spectrum of variables that no cohesive picture of the mechanisms involved has yet emerged. To date, these studies show that coral calcification varies with carbonate ion availability which, in turn controls aragonite saturation. They also reveal synergies between acidification and the better understood role of elevated temperature. Ecological studies are unlikely to reveal much detail except for the observations of the effects of carbon dioxide springs in reefs. Although ocean acidification events are not well constrained in the geological record, recent studies show that they are clearly linked to extinction events including four of the five greatest crises in the history of coral reefs.

Mangroves and seagrass beds are considered nurseries for juvenile fish, but little experimental evidence exists to elucidate which factors make them attractive habitats. A multifactorial field experiment on the use of these habitats by juvenile reef fish and their behaviour was performed during daytime with experimental units (EUs: 1 x 1 x 0.8 m), each representing a unique combination of the factors structure, shade, and food, using artificial seagrass leaves (AS) and artificial mangrove roots (AM). Diurnally active herbivores were most abundant in EUs containing food, and grazed on algae growing on the structures, but were not attracted to structures in the absence of food. The most abundant diurnally active zoobenthivores (Eucinostomus spp.) were present in highest numbers in any EU with food, where they fed on zoobenthos or rested on the bottom. The nocturnally active zoobenthivore/zooplanktivore Ocyurus chrysurus and the diurnally active piscivore Sphyraena barracuda were primarily attracted to structure, in which they rested and were not observed to feed. Haemulon flavolineatum was mainly attracted to AS, Lutjanus mahogoni was attracted to AS or shade, whereas L. apodus, O. chrysurus and S. barracuda were found in AM as well as in AS. The data suggest that during daytime, herbivores and diurnally active zoobenthivores are probably attracted to mangroves and seagrass beds primarily by food, and nocturnally active zoobenthivores by structure (in interaction with shade) that offers shelter from predation. S. barracuda is also attracted primarily to structure, but the larger individuals probably use this for ambush predation rather than for protection. In conclusion, our experiment clarifies that presence of structure, food and shade significantly contribute to the attractiveness of mangroves and seagrass beds to juvenile reef fish.

The temporal and spatial patterns of larval settlement of the bluehead wrasse, Thalas-soma bifasciatum, were documented in the San Blas Islands of Panama.

Over 100 years ago, before threats such as global climate change and ocean acidification were issues engrossing marine scientists, numerous tropical reef biologists began expressing concern that too much emphasis was being placed on coral dominance in reef systems. These researchers believed that the scientific community was beginning to lose sight of the overall mix of calcifying organisms necessary for the healthy function of reef ecosystems and demonstrated that some reefs were naturally coral dominated with corals being the main organisms responsible for reef accretion, yet other healthy reef ecosystems were found to rely almost entirely on calcified algae and foraminifera for calcium carbonate accumulation. Despite these historical cautionary messages, many agencies today have inherited a coral-centric approach to reef management, likely to the detriment of reef ecosystems worldwide. For example, recent research has shown that crustose coralline algae, a group of plants essential for building and cementing reef systems, are in greater danger of exhibiting decreased calcification rates and increased solubility than corals in warmer and more acidic ocean environments. A shift from coral-centric views to broader ecosystem views is imperative in order to protect endangered reef systems worldwide.

and showed the highest number of bleached coral colonies; Biscayne and the Middle Keys showedthe highest coral-bleaching prevalence. The most thermally sensitive corals were Porites furcata,Millepora complanata, Siderastrea radians, Porites divaricata, Agaricia agaricites, Millepora alcicornis,and Porites porites. The most extensive bleaching was recorded for large colonies, ≥30 cm, exceptin 2005 when small branching Porites colonies (<30 cm) showed higher bleaching prevalence.Shallow-water coral colonies and corals at localities with high productivity, in the form of chlorophylla and dissolved inorganic nitrogen concentration, showed higher bleaching prevalence than bothdeep coral colonies and corals at localities with low productivity. By locally regulating waste-water

discharge from the land, and thereby reducing local primary productivity, the severity of coral bleaching may be reduced when subjected to high regional water temperatures.
Wagner, D., Mielbrecht, E. van Woesik, R. (2008). Application of landscape ecology to spatial variance of water –

quality parameters along the Florida Keys reef tract. Bulletin of Marine Science, 83(3): 553–569.

Walker, B.K. et al. (2012). Dredging and shipping impacts on southeast Florida coral reefs. Proceedings of the 12th International Coral Reef Symposium, Cairns, Australia, 9-13,19A.

The potential applications of ancient DNA (aDNA) techniques have been realized relatively recently, and have been revolutionized by the advent of PCR techniquesin the mid 1980s. Although these techniques have been proven valuable inancient specimens of up to 100,000 yrs old, their use in the marine realm has beenlargely limited to mammals and fish. Using modifications of techniques developed for skeletons of whales and mammals, we have produced a method for extracting and amplifying aDNA from sub-fossil (not embedded in rock) deep-water corals

Three species of deep-sea corals were collected from several locations in the Hawaiian Archipelago. These species have been called "precious corals" because of their extensive use in the jewelry industry. Two octocorals Corallium lauuense Bayer, 1956 (red coral) and Corallium secundum Dana, 1846 (pink coral), and a zoanthid, Gerardia sp. (gold coral) collected between August and November in 1998-2004, were all histologically analysed for reproductive tissues. All three species of precious corals appear to be gonochoric (both males and females of all species being identified—though with C. lauuense more reproductive polyps are needed to conclusively confirm this), with the two species of Corallium having reproductive material contained within siphonozooids rather than the main polyp (autozoid). Maximum oocyte sizes were: Gerardia sp. ?300 ?m, C. secundum ?600 ?m, and C. lauuense ?660 ?m. All three species are hypothesized to have spawned during the collection season. Gerardia was observed spawning during collection, and histological sections of the two Corallium species show areas where gametes appear to be missing. Gerardia sp. has a single cohort of gametes developing, which may suggest seasonal reproduction, and the two Corallium species show multiple sizes present in single individuals, suggesting a periodic or quasi-continuous reproductive periodicity.

The single salivary duct formed from the ducts of the paired salivary glands, opens in the oral tube on the dorsal side of the mouth, suggesting that its secretion aids in penetration of the coral epidermis before ingestion begins.n bleaching.

Deep-sea corals were mapped using incidental by-catch samples from stock assessment surveys and fisheries observations. Thirteen alcyonaceans, two antipatharians, four solitary scleractinians, and 11 pennatulaceans were recorded. Corals were broadly distributed along the continental shelf edge and slope, with most species found deeper than 200 m; only nephtheid soft corals were found on the shelf. Large branching corals with robust skeletons included Paragorgia arborea (Linnaeus, 1758), Primnoa resedaeformis (Gunnerus, 1763), Keratoisis ornata (Verrill, 1878), Acanthogorgia armata (Verrill, 1878), Paramuricea spp., and two antipatharians. Coral distributions were highly clustered, with most co-occurring with other species. Scientific survey data delineated two broad coral species richness hotspots: southwest Grand Bank (16 spp.) and an area of the Labrador slope between Makkovik Bank and Belle Isle Bank (14 spp.). Fisheries observations indicated abundant or diverse corals off southeast Baffin Island, Cape Chidley, Labrador, Tobin's Point, and the Flemish Cap. Corals on the Flemish Cap comprised exclusively soft coral, sea pens, and solitary scleractinians. Most coral-rich areas were suggested in earlier research based on stock assessment surveys or Local Environmental Knowledge (LEK). Currently there are no conservation measures in place to protect deep-sea coral in this region.

Warner, R. R. (1984). Mating behavior and hermaphroditism in coral reef fishes American Scientist, 72, 128-136.

Warner, R. R. (1992). Local vs. long-distance supply of recruits for coral reef fish population.s

Weaver, D. C., Hickerson, E., & Schmahl, G. (2006). Deep reef fish surveys by submersible on Alderdice, McGrail, and Sonnier Banks in the Northwestern Gulf of Mexico in NOAA (Ed.), Emerging technologies for reef fisheries research and management (pp. 69-87). Seattle, WA: NOAA.

Submersible surveys at numerous reefs and banks in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico (NWGOM) were conducted as part of the Sustainable Seas Expedition (SSE) during July/August 2002 to identify reef fish communities, characterize benthic habitats, and identify deep coral reef ecosystems. To identify the spatial extent of hard bottom reef communities, the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary (FGBNMS) and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) mapped approximately 2000 km2 of the Northwestern Gulf of Mexico (NWGOM) continental shelf during June 2002 with high-resolution multibeam bathymetry.
Webster, M. S. & Hixon, M. A. (2000). Mechanisms and Individual Consequences of Intraspecific Competition in a Coral Reef Fish. Marine Ecology-Progress Series, 196, 187-194.

Species of coral-reef fish that exhibit dominance hierarchies provide opportunities for experimental studies of intraspecific competition within discrete social groups.

Wellington, G. (1982). Depth Zonation Of Corals In The Gulf Of Panama: Control And Facilitation By Resident Reef Fishes. Ecological Monographs, 52, 223-241.

The mechanisms that control the distribution and abundance of major benthic organisms in subtidal coral reef communities are poorly understood. Through field experimentation and manipulations, this study investigated the factors that account for the vertical zonation patterns found on a fringing reef in the Gulf of Panama (Pacific). In this community, pocilloporid corals form a near-monorypic stand (80-85% live coral cover) in shallow water (0---6 m depth) while massive corals, particularly Pavona gigantea, predominate in low density (=18% cover) in the deeper areas of the reef (6-10 in depth).
Wells, S. & UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific.

Westneat, M. W. & Resing, J. M. (1988). Predation on coral spawn by planktivorous fish. Coral Reefs, 7, 89-92.

Reef fish were examined for changes in diet during the annual mass spawning of scleractinian corals on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Acanthochromis polyacanthus, Abudefduf bengalensis (Pomacentridae), and Caesio cuning (Caesionidae) were collected before and immediately after the coral spawning to determine whether the composition of the diet changed after the mass coral spawning. The diet of Caesiocuningdid not change. The stomach contents of Acanthochromis and Ahudefduf showed that these fish: (1) switched from an omnivorous diet to one consisting predominantly of coral spawn,
Wheaton, J. L. & Jaap, W. C. (1988). Corals and other prominent benthic cnidaria of Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary, Publication 43 St. Petersburg: Florida Marine Research.

Wiebe, W. J., Johannes, R. E., & Webb, K. L. (1975). Nitrogen fixation in a coral reef community

Wild, C. H.-G. & et al (2011). Climate change impedes scleractinian corals as primary reef ecosystem engineers. Marine and Freshwater Research, 62, 205-215.

Coral reefs are among the most diverse and productive ecosystems on our planet. Scleractinian corals function as the primary reef ecosystem engineers, constructing the framework that serves as a habitat for all other coral reef-associated organisms. However, the coral's engineering role is particularly susceptible to global climate change. Ocean warming can cause extensive mass coral bleaching, which triggers dysfunction of major engineering processes. Sub-lethal bleaching results in the reduction of both primary productivity and coral calcification. This may lead to changes in the release of organic and inorganic products, thereby altering critical biogeochemical and recycling processes in reef ecosystems. Thermal stress-induced bleaching and subsequent coral mortality, along with ocean acidification, further lead to long-term shifts in benthic community structure, changes in topographic reef complexity, and the modification of reef functioning. Such shifts may cause negative feedback loops and further modification of coral-derived inorganic and organic products.
Wilkinson, C. (2004). Status of Coral Reefs of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef Systems Project Region, and Reefs of El Salvador, Nicaragua and the Pacific Coasts of Mesoamerica. In (.

Williams, B., M. J. Risk, S. W. Ross, and K. J. Sulak. 2007. Stable isotope data from deep-water antipatharians: 400-year records from the southeastern coast of the United States of America. Bulletin of Marine Science 81(3): 437-447.

In this study, time-series stable isotope results (ƒÂ13C and ƒÂ15N) from three deepwater Leiopathes glaberrima (Esper, 1788) specimens collected off the southeastern coast of the United States of America and one specimen from the Gulf of Mexico are presented. The specimens were collected live in 2004 and are estimated to be 200.
500 yrs old based on 210Pb measurements and band counts. The ƒÂ13C and ƒÂ15N longterm trends are reproducible within and among specimens from a similar location, suggesting a common environmental influence. Three western Atlantic specimens have average ƒÂ13C values of 15.7ñ, 16.3ñ, and 16.1ñ, with the most depleted
values from the oldest specimen. The oldest specimen records an enrichment in 13C of 0.5ñ corresponding to the Little Ice Age. All three specimens show a depletion of 13C over the past 150 yrs corresponding to the ƒÂ13C Suess Effect. The fourth specimen from the Gulf of Mexico has an average ƒÂ13C value of 16.4ñ and shows
no trend in 13C value with time. All four specimens contain an enrichment in 15N over the most recent 75 yrs, with the largest enrichment (3ñ) in the Gulf of Mexico specimen. This enrichment is likely a result of increased terrestrial effluent (sewage and manure) reaching the offshore specimens.
Williams, I. D. & et al (2008). Assessing the importance of fishing impacts on Hawaiian coral reef fish assemblage along regional-scale human population gradients. Environmental Conservation, 35, 261-272.

Humans can impact coral reef fishes directly by fishing, or indirectly through anthropogenic degradation of habitat. Uncertainty about the relative importance of those can make it difficult to develop and build consensus for appropriate remedial management. Relationships between fish assemblages and human population density were assessed using data from 18 locations widely spread throughout the Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI) to evaluate the significance of fishing as a factor potentially driving fish trends on a regional scale. Fish biomass in several groups was negatively correlated with local human population density and a number of lines of evidence indicate that fishing was the prime driver of those trends. First, declines were consistently evident among fish groups targeted by fishers, but not among lightly fished or non-target groupings, which indicates that declines in target groups were not simply indicative of a general decline in habitat quality along human population gradients. Second, proximity to high human populations was not associated with low fish biomass where shoreline structure prevented ready access by fishers. Relatively remote and inaccessible locations within the MHI had 2.1-4.2 times the biomass of target fishes compared to accessible and populous locations, and may therefore function as partial refugia. However, stocks in those areas were clearly far from pristine, as biomass of large predators was more than an order of magnitude lower than at more intact ecosystems elsewhere in the Pacific.

Since the 1970's, macroalgae have become considerably more abundant on many Caribbean reefs and overfishing of grazing fishes has been implicated as a contributory factor.

Settlement of juvenile scleractinian corals was investigated from 1987 to 1990 on eutrophic and less eutrophic fringing reefs on the west coast of Barbados, West Indies. The number of coral recruits and number of recruiting coral species on cement blocks decreased with increasing eutrophication of the reefs. This may suggest lower settlement rates on eutrophic reefs, but could also have resulted from higher post-settlement mortality, since blocks were examined only once after 3 yr of immersion. Coral settlement rates to artificial plates that were checked monthly were also lower on the more eutrophic reefs. This could result from lower local availability of larvae caused by fewer adult corals and/or lower reproductive rates of corals on eutrophic reefs. However, the ratio of coral recruits to adult coral abundance was considerably lower on eutrophic reefs, suggesting that local coral abundance alone cannot explain lower settlement rates on eutrophic reefs. The lower rates on eutrophic reefs may result from a lower probability of coral larvae settling when present, perhaps because of a limited availability of suitable settlement substrate. Colonization of settlement plates by non-coralline organisms was heavier on eutrophic reefs, and unoccupied space was lower, supporting the suggestion that suitable coral settlement substrate may be limiting on eutrophic reefs. Moreover, coralline algae, which facilitate metamorphosis and settlement of coral larvae, were less abundant on settlement plates on eutrophic reefs.

Observations of three types of artificail reefs at 20m depths showed fish predation alters the pattern of colonization of stomatopods, the largest and most mobile of the cryptic reef fauna.

Reef-building corals have been extensively degraded by Acanthaster planci infestations which have continued to spread throughout the Ryuku archipelago since 1969.