Environmental risks and developmental challenges confronting river niger and its basin
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The Niger River Basin Areal extent The Niger River basin (Figure 3, Table 1.) covers 7.5% of the African continent. The total basin area is about 2.2 million km², of which approx. 1.5 million km² represents the hydrologically active part of the basin. The northern section of the basin, extending across the Sahara desert into Algeria, is hydrologically inactive. The Niger Basin covers six agro-climatic zones shared by nine (it will be 10 if Algeria is added) countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Cote d’Ivoire, Guinea, Mali, Niger, and Nigeria). 
Fig. 3 The Niger River with the Niger River Basin in Green (Niger River. (2015, January 12). New World Encyclopedia, . Retrieved 12:10, July 27, 2016) Table 1. Niger Basin and areas shared by different countries
Source: Marquette (2008) in Ogilvie et al 2010 Physical features Within the Niger basin, climate shows great variability. Mean annual precipitation levels decrease northward from more than 160 inches (4,100 mm) in the delta area to less than 10 inches (250 mm) in Timbuktu. Both the upper and the lower stretches of the river, however, drain areas with more than 50 inches (1,300 mm) of precipitation per year. Because of climatic variations the annual river flood does not occur at the same time in different parts of the basin. In the upper Niger the high-water discharge occurs in June, and the low-water season is in December. In the middle Niger, a first high-water discharge—the white flood (so called because of the light sediment content of the water)—occurs soon after the rainy season between July and October; a second rise—the black flood (so called because of the greater sediment content)—begins in December with the arrival of floodwaters from upstream. May and June are the low-water months in the middle stretch. Along its course the Niger traverses virtually all the ecological zones of West Africa. The Fouta Djallon plateau, where the Niger rises, is covered by a type of sedge vegetation. From the Fouta Djallon to well below the Niger’s confluence with the Benue, the river flows mainly through savanna grassland country. The river has thirty six (36) families of freshwater fish with nearly 250 species, 20 of which are found nowhere else on Earth but the Niger. The major fish species are catfish, carp, and Nile perch. Other fauna of the Niger River include hippopotamuses, at least three different species of crocodiles, and a variety of lizards. The West African manatee, which faces extinction, lives in the river. The African Lion is also found in the Niger river basin Other Niger fauna include hippopotamuses, at least three different types of crocodiles (including the much-feared Nile crocodile), and a variety of lizards. There is a rich collection of birds. Geese are found in the lake region, and herons, egrets, and storks are found both on the river and around the lakes. The striking crown bird is found wherever there is open ground in the grassland zone, and pelicans and flamingos are particularly associated with the upper Benue area. Smaller riverine species include white-headed plovers, crocodile, birds amongst others. Socio-economic features The population of the basin is about 100 million people, of which around 80% live in Nigeria. Annual population growth rate is about 3%.. The population is 64% rural. However, this is changing rapidly and by 2025 the majority may be urban. Urbanization is fuelled by a massive rural exodus, as well as a century-old migration from the inland to coastal areas. The population is young (44% are under 15 years of age) and largely illiterate (with 35% overall literacy rates and only 18% for women). Demographers estimate, according to the lowest scenario, that the population of the basin will double by 2050, but, if the fertility rates remain constant, the population could increase fourfold by 2050. This could jeopardize current and future development (Ogilvie et al 2010). Agriculture represents a large part of the Niger Basin GDP, with crops making up 25–35%, livestock 10–15%, and fishery 1–4%. The main livelihood/agricultural systems in the basin include dry- and wet-season cropping, pastoral systems, crop-livestock systems and fishing. The major crops are yams, cassava, rice, groundnuts, millet, sorghum, plantains, cocoa beans, maize, sugarcane and cotton. The Niger Basin Authority The Niger Basin Authority (1980), successor of the Niger River Commission (1964), was established to foster, promote and co-ordinate studies and programs relating to the Niger River basin. Today the Authority is required to promote co-operation among the member countries and to ensure integrated development of its resources, notably in the fields of energy, water resources, agriculture, forestry, exploitation, transport and communication, industry. To achieve its mandate, an institutional framework was set up, consisting of:
POTENTIALS OF RIVER NIGER AND THE NIGER BASIN (AS COMMON POOL RESOURCES) Wetlands, Biodiversity and Ecotourism potentials The Niger River shapes a corridor of productivity that has, for thousands of years, provided people with dynamic and rich livelihoods, and has made human survival possible even in times of desolate drought. Floodplain pastures of bourgou grass supported livestock, wildlife and nurseries for fish. Harvested rice fields were grazed by livestock, which in turn fertilised the fields with their manure. Farming of millet, vegetables and rice; livestock herding; fishing, hunting and gathering of wild plants to use as food and medicine co-exist, waxing and waning in response to changes in climate and river flows. The Niger River system has also sustained remarkable biological communities (See Plates 1, 2 and 3) In the floodplains and delta wetlands along the river, a specialised flora has evolved that is adapted to extreme fluctuations in water levels. These communities also support a wide variety of fascinating animals. Black-crowned cranes, a regional symbol of beauty and authority, rely on floodplain wetland habitat throughout the basin. In addition, the braided wetlands that form Niger’s “Inner Delta” in Mali support hundreds of thousands of transmigratory birds (Plate x) . Manatees can still be found in several pockets of suitable habitat that still remain along the river. Hippopotami and crocodiles are still present in the Niger, and can sometimes pose danger to those who trespass unaware. The river’s true delta in Nigeria contains West Africa’s largest mangrove forest. 
Plate 1. Diverse ecosystem of the Niger Basin.(WWF, 1986) 
Plate 2. Niger River with diverse ecosystem (http://answersafrica.com/niger-river-everything-you-must-know-about-the-west-african-longest-river.htmlaccessed 27/7/2016) 
Plate 3: Niger Basin with rich Fauna (WWF–Canon/John E Newby) Irrigation potential and water requirements There is a vast land potential for irrigation. The irrigation potential for the Niger River Basin is estimated at 2, 816 510 ha, of which 924, 610 ha (33%) are already under irrigation (Table 2). Table 2: Niger River basin: irrigation potential, water requirements, water availability and areas under irrigation
Arable land and livestock potential There are over 2.5 million ha of arable land in the Niger Basin with 85% of the cultivated area dependent on rainfed farming. However, only 20% are exploited. Scattered over more than 1.5 Million km2 distributed over nearly 13◦ latitude, the 50 million herders of the basin maintain 138 million livestock units (Diop et al. 2009a). The north–south distribution of species is a function of their resistance to drought and their ability to exploit natural rangelands. Camels constitute the dominant form of breeding in the north of the basin and may be found up to 13◦N. At lower latitudes, zebu (Bos indicus) cattle are found. Below 8◦N latitude, are the Bos taurus cattle and smaller ruminants. There are small ruminants, mostly goat and sheep, across the basin (Plate 4). There are two major livestock production systems in the basin: nomadic herders, who live on Sahelo-Saharan fringes and who have large herds of zebu cattle, and sedentary herders. 
Plate 4.Grazing in the Niger Basin (WWF–Canon/John E Newby) Fishery Potential The Niger River harbours 36 families and nearly 250 species of freshwater fish, of which 20 are found nowhere else on Earth. Eleven of the 18 families of freshwater fish (Plate 5) that are endemic to Africa are represented in the Niger River (WWF 1986). 
Plate 5. One of the Fish species in the Niger River (http://answersafrica.com/niger-river-everything-you-must-know-about-the-west-african-longest-river.htmlaccessed 27/7/2016) Navigation In many areas, the Niger River is used for navigation, depending on time and location. Between Guinea and Mali however, there is no commercial traffic. From August to January, the Niger is navigable from Koulikoro to Gao. The Inland Delta is navigable for small fishing boats throughout the year. In the wet season, boats are the most popular transport method in the delta. Mopti on the Bani tributary serves as main port in the Inland Delta. Downstream of the delta, navigation on the Niger is limited until Timbuktu. From Timbuktu to Niamey, navigation is possible, although difficult in some parts due to rocks and rapids. DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES WITHIN THE RIVER NIGER BASIN A combination of human population growth, unsustainable resource use and development, drought and desertification as well as climate change are threatening the Niger River’s ability to supply crucially needed natural resources to the people of West Africa. River flows in the basin are decreasing at the same time that fishing pressure is increasing, leading to drastic declines in the productivity of the Niger’s fisheries. The effects of deforestation and farming of fragile soils is leading to sedimentation of river channels. Habitat alterations are also threatening the rich tapestry of the Niger River ecosystem. These include dams, which drastically alter the flow and sediment regimes of the rivers in the basin in addition to directly fragmenting and destroying aquatic habitats; irrigated floodplain agriculture, which displaces productive habitat for fish, livestock, and wildlife; and increasing discharges of sewage and other anthropogenic pollutants into the rivers. The combination of these changes in the Niger’s aquatic environment are creating ideal conditions for the spread of the water hyacinth, an invasive species which chokes the river channels and increases evaporative losses from reservoirs by up to ten-fold. Future water development in the basin is likely to generate political tensions as the basin nations compete for control of an increasingly important resource. .
Population of the basin was estimated at 94 million in 2005 (CIESIN/CIAT 2005), of which 71% live in Nigeria. Due to a high fertility rate, populations of most countries in the basin increased by 50% between 1990 and 2005 and the growth rate of the population is estimated at 3.2% (Bana and Conde 2008, Guengant 2009). Demographers estimate that the population of the basin will double by 2050. This could jeopardize current and future development. Economic Viability Today, there are fewer than 150 large dams in West Africa out of a total of 1,300 on the continent. The region has fewer than two large dams per 100,000 km², as compared to 4.3 dams per 100,000 km² in Africa as a whole. Many projects, especially multi-purpose ones, are being initiated. In most cases, the projects are conceived only at the national level, even though the “purpose” of the dam is essentially regional, and the construction of a structure has, by definition, consequences beyond its borders. These consequences include changes in the hydrologic regime of the river, destruction of natural habitats and the agricultural production and ecosystem services they provide for livelihoods and food security. This is of particular importance in a region characterized by its extreme poverty and the fact that despite the massive exodus to urban areas over the past decades, the bulk of West Africa’s population still lives in the countryside and their main source of livelihoods and income depend heavily on agriculture—mainly rain-fed and from flood recession.
When ranked by gross domestic product (GDP) (purchasing power parity, per capita), all nine countries of the Niger Basin fall in the bottom quarter of national incomes. Agriculture represents a large part of the Niger Basin GDP, with crops making up 25–35%, livestock 10–15%, and fishery 1–4%. The main livelihood/agricultural systems in the basin include dry- and wet-season cropping, pastoral systems, crop-livestock systems and fishing. The major crops are yams, cassava, rice, groundnuts, millet, sorghum, plantains, cocoa beans, maize, sugarcane and cotton. The basin countries have important mineral resources, including gold, bauxite and uranium. Nigeria is the region’s largest oil and gas producer, with 3% (36 billion bbl) of the world reserves, mostly in the Niger Delta (CEDEAO 2007). Installed hydroelectric capacity is 6185 GWh, less than 21% of the basin’s potential. As in many parts of Africa, the Niger Basin suffers from a huge deficit in transport infrastructure, which undermines economic growth and regional integration.
The United Nations Human Development Index, a composite ranking based on national income, life expectancy and adult literacy rate, ranks all of the Niger Basin countries in the lowest quintile of countries (Table 2) (UNDP 2007). Life expectancies (on average 50 years) are in the bottom 15% of all countries worldwide (Aboubakar 2003, Bana and Conde 2008). Niger Basin childhood mortality rates (death prior to the age of five) of up to 250 per 1000 live births are two to three times higher than those in neighbouring countries in northern and southern Africa (Balk et al. 2003, Guengant 2009). After respiratory diseases, water-related diseases, namely malaria and diarrhoeal diseases are the largest causes of child mortality (UNICEF 2008, OMS 2006, ECOWAS-SWAC/OECD 2008). HIV infection rates are 1.1–7.1%, significant but less than in southern Africa. The proportion of people living below the poverty line (US$1.25 per day) is high throughout the basin and is especially acute in Burkina Faso (70.3%), Guinea (70.1%) and Niger (65.9%) (World Bank 2009). There are an estimated 138 million poor in the basin countries, most of whom are rural. Table 2 provides a snapshot of the development status for these countries according to an array of commonly applied poverty metrics.
The ethno-linguistic diversity in the basin is one of the richest in the world with over 400 vernacular languages and five official languages. Though half of these could disappear by 2050, the sheer number of them restricts the circulation and dissemination of information and innovations. Traditional customs, influenced by animist culture, continue to define local activities and practices (Clanet 1994). Partly from the inability of central government administrations to implement their directives, village and land chiefs maintain considerable influence and power (Jacob 2005). Internal political tensions and peripheral rebellions also undermine central governments and their development efforts. Construction of Dams The Niger Basin has 27 major dams and over 5000 small dams. Kainji Dam (Plate 6) for instance, is one of the major dams constructed across the Niger River in western Nigeria since 1964. While the Niger Basin Authority favours large-scale developments to reach one and a half million hectares by 2025 according to its investment plan, many donors currently favour small-scale irrigation, preferably privately funded and owned. A number of small dams already exist in Burkina Faso, Mali, Côte d’Ivoire and are being actively developed as part of public, private and non-governmental organization (NGO) projects. These dams reduce flows into the Inner Delta and affect livelihoods of a million herders, fisher communities and traditional rice growers as well as the wetland ecosystems In September 2009, the Nigerian government commenced a 36 billion naira dredging of the Niger River from Baro to Warri, a move which will see silt removed from several hundred miles. The dredging is intended to make it easier for goods to be transported to isolated settlements located deep within from the Atlantic Ocean. . 
Plate x. Kainji Dam, built on the Niger River ((http://answersafrica.com/niger-river-everything-you-must-know-about-the-west-african-longest-river.htmlaccessed 27/7/2016) 
Plate x. Niger Bridge: The popular Niger Bridge is built across the Niger river, connecting Western Nigeria with South-eastern Nigeria. (http://answersafrica.com/niger-river-everything-you-must-know-about-the-west-african-longest-river.htmlaccessed 27/7/2016) A number of projects have been carried out including a study on institutional set up, the establishment of a documentation centre, sedimentation modelling, and desertification control. In spite of the investments made over the years, the benefits have not been felt and individual countries have developed the river for various uses in their countries without references to their NBA Conservation Challenges To date, the basin’s system of inland waters is still poorly delineated, inventoried, and lacks effective planning or management. Although there has been a strong focus on improving catchment land use management including, for example, important efforts to reverse the land degradation and river siltation trends associated with overgrazing and desertification, there has been little effort to safeguard the freshwater natural capital, services and interconnected functionality of the river system from its headwaters in Guinea through to the coastal Niger Delta. Water resource management must take ecosystem requirements into account.
The water resources theme cuts across most of the priority development issues: The hydrological regime of the river and its tributaries is closely linked to the monsoon and is episodically subject to great falls. The monsoon flood wave and the dry season following it set the pace for the basin's activities. The development zones are unequal in terms of surface water resources. The underground resources are poorly understood at a river basin scale and seem to be little used. Abstractions of water, mainly for agriculture, are constantly increasing. Surface water resources are so far only under control to a small extent, mainly focusing in the downstream part of the basin, and the hydroelectric production potential is under-used; there are many projects which plan to increase water control and hydropower production. Sectoral planning, management and decision making within the nexus of water, food and energy security, has typically proceeded without considering the health and sustainability of the river ecosystem or incorporated ecosystem needs. The partner vision for the Niger River is that it would be a lifeline for development in a climatically uncertain region secured through cooperative and efficient water resources management. The management would capitalize on the valued ecosystem services provided by the river and the knowledge and experience of its people, and where water resources benefit the wellbeing of the societies of all basin countries. . Environmental degradation The environment is degraded from low flows and severe low water levels, silting of river beds; industrial & household pollution entailing water borne, water infestation like water hycinth, and loss of arable and pasture lands. ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS WITHIN THE NIGER RIVER AND ITS BASIN Vulnerability and Relevance of Climate Change and Variability Countries located in the Niger River Basin are particularly vulnerable to climate change and variability due to several factors. In particular the countries located in the Sahel depend on water from the river.In fact, most of the issues which contribute to the strong vulnerability are more urgent for the development of the countries than climate change itself. Approaches addressing them can lead to increased resilience and can be classified as adaptation to climate change and variability. Strong poverty reduces the countries’ adaptive capacity (i.e. ability to cope with climatic threats). All countries in the river basin are classified as developing countries, six of them as Least Developed Countries (LDCs) by the United Nations, including Guinea, Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger. Dependency on agriculture: A large share of the national economies depends on agriculture and cattle-breeding. The vulnerability is further increased by the fact that most of the agriculture is rain-fed (see table 3). The dependence on agriculture became visible after a massive drought in 1984, when the GDP of Mali and Niger fell by 9 and 18 percent, respectively.
pressure on water resources. The population growth rate ranges from 2.6% to 3.7% per year. Migration to urban areas is expected to further increase water demand.35 However, infrastructure including water and sanitation systems is poorly developed. Land use makes the countries even more vulnerable. Changes in land use and resulting changes in land cover have an important impact on water resources in the basin. In the Sahelian part of Niger, the share of cultivated land increased from 10% in the 1950s to almost 80% today.36 Furthermore, deforestation is practised along the river basin. Wood is used as an important source of energy, while access to electricity is insufficient.37 In addition, traditional manmade, accidental or natural bush fires contribute to deforestation.38 Both developments cause increasing runoff, withdrawing water resources from land. Historical trends The basin has experienced strong climate change and climate variability. Seasonal and annual changes in rainfall and runoff have forced people to adapt to different climatic conditions at all times. As mentioned above, the region is characterized by a wet season and a dry season, the latter being significantly longer in the Sahel zone. Desertification is increasing towards the South of the Sahara desert, evidenced by the move of rainfall areas. It is difficult to separate the developments which are caused by climate change from those which are directly caused by people, e.g. man made deserts through a change of land use.
Regardless of the cause, a change in rainfall frequency and intensity and discharge like in the second half of the 20th century has important impacts on water resources in the highly vulnerable economies.53 This includes the direct impacts of a reduction in water supply and crop yields. In the following, some other main effects are briefly described. Shrinking natural wetlands: As mentioned above, the size of the Inland Delta depends on the discharge of the Niger River and varies considerably. A reduction of wetlands leads in turn to a decrease in species diversity, including fish.
solids, leading to increased siltation in the watercourses.55 This has been the case in Niger particularly concerning the Niger River.56
recharge. This is the case in the Sudanian areas of the river basin, where declining groundwater leads to a reduction of discharge. In the Sahel however, part of the runoff does not reach the main river and instead recharges the groundwater.57 However, the hydrological regime concerning groundwater is still relatively unexplored, indicating the need for more research in that area. Increasing temperatures, the projection with by far the highest probability by far will lead to increased evapotranspiration, reducing the amount of surface water. Desertification: The observed shift of rainfall areas results in increasing deforestation and desertification. In a feedback loop, this in turn contributes to the persistence of the drought. As mentioned above, desertification can also happen due to changes in land use and land cover which is the case in the Niger River Basin.58 The soil becomes loose and soil erosion increases. Loose soil has a poorer water holding capacity resulting in higher runoff.59
Given the uncertain future climate projections, it is recommended to rely on no-regret measures, i.e. measures which are justifiable even in the complete absence of climate change and variability. Measures which partially or exclusively target the impacts of climate change include a certain risk of uselessness, since these impacts are not clear. However, water in the Upper and Middle Niger River Basin is under pressure due to other developments. Climate change and variability could, if they happen, further exacerbate the situation. Therefore, action against trends like population growth, deforestation, and pollution of water resources contributes to improving resilience to climate change and variability and to decreasing vulnerability. There is a wide range of possible no-regret measures which might be implemented in the basin. The NAPAs and National Communications of the countries include lists of proposed adaptation measures. The following list gives some ideas on adequate measures. Adaptation to the impacts of climate change can be done in several ways. Most of the following measures recommended for adaptation directly target flooding in rivers, which is expected to increase in the future. Floodings already occurred in the 19th century and are not a new phenomenon. However, the rising temperature plus increasing rainfall intensity significantly increase the risk of floods in rivers. Since floods are likely to happen with and without climate change, but their size is very likely to increase due to climate change, measures targeting flooding risks in the river system can be classified as low regret measures. It should be noted that the glaciers might disappear entirely by the end of the century which would significantly decrease the risk of flooding.85 A second category is adaptation to drought and water quality issues, in particular in Armenia and Azerbaijan. Since these developments are likely even in the complete absence of climate change, measures in that category are no regret measures. In the coastal areas of Azerbaijan, things are different. The Caspian Sea level decreased during a long time in the last century, but increased rapidly since the 1970s. As shown above, the future sea level development is not clear. Measures targeting the risk of flooding at the coast of Azerbaijan or a decreasing sea level can thus not be recommended. In the following, several suitable adaptation measures are suggested. Research A 2009 document published by UNDP and the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) suggests several adaptation measures for Armenia. One of them concerns the urgent need for more research about climate change impacts and suited adaptation measures.86 Given the lack of hydrologic information in the Kura Aras River Basin, this recommendation can be transferred to the whole area. This includes the establishment and operation of a transboundary monitoring system concerning discharge, precipitation, runoff and water quality. Based on such a monitoring system, an early warning system might be established, informing downstream users of hazards and avoiding damage.87 In addition, a good monitoring system provides the basis for a sustainable flood control and risk management strategy.88 As shown below, many donors are already active in improving transboundary research. Spatial planning In areas which are threatened by flooding, damage could be avoided by an adequate land use policy. Besides the restriction of land use and settlements in flood risk zones, this includes a strategic vegetation management, for instance through reforestation.89 Improved spatial planning could also have a positive impact on water quality.
Another recommended adaptation approach is the improvement of existing water infrastructure.90 Future developments might bring stronger floods and storms which could have disastrous impacts. The construction and/or rehabilitation of adequate infrastructure would reduce the risk of such effects. Moreover, water storage facilities would help to regulate the flow and reduce the negative impacts caused by droughts. Concerning water quality, treatment facilities might be constructed and rehabilitated. Water Demand Management Water resources are under pressure in particular in Armenia and Azerbaijan. Consequently, Azerbaijan’s national communication suggests several adaptation measures with the objective to reduce water demand, all of them targeting agriculture, the largest water user. These include increased irrigation efficiency, reconstruction of drainage systems, reuse of treated drainage water and introduction of water saving technologies (see annex 3).91 However, water saving measures might also be introduced in other sectors, for instance through improved metering and pricing principles. Awareness Raising Communities affected by flooding, drought or water quality problems can be assisted through measures with the objective to improve preparedness and self protection.92 Awareness can be raised by the dissemination of knowledge through media and education.93 In addition to the NAPAs, the four countries also published their first national communications to the UNFCCC from 2000 to 2002. Niger published its second national communication in 2009. All national communications are listed in annex 2.
Adaptation to a changing climate is not a new development. As shown above, climate in the Niger Basin has changed at least since the second half of the last century, with strong variations in precipitation and discharge and an increase in temperature. Therefore, people were forced to adapt to the changing situation with limited external support. In four small villages in the basin close to Niamey, Amoukou found numerous agricultural strategies with the objective to reduce climatic risks. Some of these approaches receive support from NGOs and development cooperation organizations. Concerning water resources, he mentions the following adaptation measures: - Removal of sand from pools - Manual removal of water hyacinth from the river - Limitation of fishing practices - Introduction of new fishing techniques - Watering of animals at the river when pools run dry94 One important approach of adaptation is migration.95 People leave areas in which climate becomes hostile. In Mali for instance, a large share of people move towards the Southern regions and cities due to low yields and shrinking water resources.96 Future adaptationmeasures have been identified through the NAPAs. It is not clear if any of projects started so far. Hence, there is a large amount of possible future adaptation measures The Niger, which is the third largest river in Africa, dried up completely for several weeks in 1985 at Malanville in the Benin Republic
Rainfall depends on the Atlantic monsoon between May and November and gives a wet season and dry season. In the most southern part of the basin in Nigeria, the wet season is subject to a period of reduced rainfall: the second, short dry season. Climatic zones vary from hyper-arid to sub-equatorial and annual rainfall fluctuates from over 4000 mm in southern Nigeria/Cameroon to less than 400 mm (with no rain in some years) on the fringes of the Sahara desert in northern Mali and Niger (Figure 3). In the Sahelian climate of the far north, even short-season crops cannot be grown reliably, but in the rest of the basin, rainfall is broadly sufficient for rainfed agriculture. Rainfall is spatially and temporally variable, however, causing water excess and droughts, which are more problematic for agriculture than low annual rainfall (Mahoo et al. 1999 cited by Rockstrom et al. 2002). In the north of the basin, short (two-to-four-month-long) wet seasons restrict the growing season, while in the south, both dry spells during the wet season and excess rainfall can cause crop failures. During the 1970s and 1980s isohyets over the whole basin shifted south by about 150 km with devastating droughts across West Africa (Conway et al. 2009) and the Sahel in particular. Rainfall has increased since 1994, but remains erratic with more periods of severe drought (Mahé and Paturel 2009), which continue to reduce water availability in the basin. Rainfall–runoff graphs over the last century in the upper Niger Basin reflect the major droughts (Figure 4). Evaporation Potential evapotranspiration (ETp) is high across the basin, especially in the north, due to advection from the Sahara. This dries up areas of inland drainage and causes high losses in water reservoirs. When rainfall (P) exceeds ETp, the surplus infiltrates the soils, recharges groundwater and, excluding supplementary irrigation, defines the cropping season. In the north of the basin, this only occurs during the months of July and August. When rainfall is less than ETp, November–April across the basin, plants exhaust soil water reserves and there is neither runoff nor infiltration. Flows The annual mean flow into the Inner Delta from Guinea and Mali is 46 km3, but the mean outflow at Taoussa is only 33 km3. The delta, whose area can reach 30,000 km2 during the flood, changes the hydrology of the Niger by delaying the flood by two to three months, and reducing the flow 24–48% in dry or wet years respectively (Mahé et al. 2009b). The middle section of the Niger receives six tributaries from Benin and Burkina Faso and the mean annual flow entering the lower Niger in Nigeria is 36 km3.With the contribution of its main tributary, the Benue River in Nigeria, and heavy rainfall, the mean annual discharge at the mouth exceeds 180 km3. The Niger River is highly seasonal with fairly high interannual variation. Runoff in all the sub-basins has lessened substantially since 1970, reflecting the decreased rainfall (Figure 4). Runoff proportionally fell most in the upper basin (upstream of the Inner Delta), caused directly by reduced contribution from rainfall and indirectly by less groundwater recharge and related baseflow. In the lower basin, including the Benue River basin, runoff was less affected because the rainfall decreased less. In contrast, in the Sahelian parts of the basin, runoff coefficients increased, partly due to reduced rainfall and soil compaction effects but mainly to increased agriculture and reduced cover by natural vegetation, leading to higher flood peaks, erosion, sediment transport and dam silting (Mahe et al. 2005). These variations in climate and river regimes have important implications for designing the projected dams in the basin as well as on the water available for agriculture.
Groundwater can provide a valuable water supply for dry season agriculture and quality drinking water. Studies have shown that under the Soudano-Guinean climate (Guinea, Mali, Côte d’Ivoire and Cameroon), baseflow from groundwater makes an important contribution. There are large aquifers in sedimentary strata in Mali, Niger, Chad, Nigeria and Cameroon, and discontinuous aquifers in the Guineo-Sudanese and the Sudano-sahelian zones of Guinea, Mali, Côte d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso and Niger. Groundwater recharge is variable and depends on the geology, topology, climate and crop cover. Recharge rates vary from 20 mm/year in the Sokoto region of Nigeria (Adelana et al. 2006) to 136 mm/year in Katchari in northern Burkina Faso (Filippi et al. 1990). Around Niamey, Niger groundwater recharge increased fivefold to 25 mm/year when natural savannah was replaced by millet crops (Leduc et al. 2001). Extrapolation to other parts of the basin is uncertain and resources remain largely unknown. Withdrawals are poorly quantified, but are estimated to be less than 5 km3/year in Mali and Niger (WWAP 2009). There are proposals to develop groundwater and intensification may be worthwhile, but the impact must be carefully monitored to ensure that the amount pumped is sustainable. Water balance At the scale of the whole basin, evapotranspiration is the main component of the water balance. The mean rainfall of 690 mm over the total basin gives a gross input of 1500 km3/yr. Flow at the confluence of the Benue and Niger rivers is 183 km3, and discharge at the mouth is about 200 km3 (blue water), which indicates high availability of water in the lower basin. Consumptive withdrawals for humans, livestock and industry are low and groundwater storage may be assumed constant. The difference, 1200–1300 km3 or 80% of the basin water resources, is therefore evapotranspired. Mainuddin et al. (2010) indicate that grassland is the dominant water use compared with woodland and rainfed agriculture, but this is subject to classification difficulties. Water evapotranspired from irrigation is extremely low and highlights the importance of exploiting green water effectively. Hydrology Because of climatic variations the annual river flood does not occur at the same time in different parts of the basin. In the upper Niger the high-water discharge occurs in June, and the low-water season is in December. In the middle Niger, a first high-water discharge—the white flood (so called because of the light sediment content of the water)—occurs soon after the rainy season between July and October; a second rise—the black flood (so called because of the greater sediment content)—begins in December with the arrival of floodwaters from upstream. May and June are the low-water months in the middle stretch. On the Benue there is only one high-water season. Because of the Benue’s more southerly location, this normally occurs from May to October—earlier than on the middle Niger. The lower Niger below its confluence with the Benue consequently has a high-water period that begins in May or June—about a month earlier than on the middle Niger—and a low-water period that is at least a month shorter, as the rains in the south start earlier. In January a slight rise occurs due to the arrival of floodwaters from the upper Niger. The difference between high and low water often measures as much as 35 feet (10 metres). Plant and animal life Along its course the Niger traverses virtually all the vegetational zones of western Africa. The Fouta Djallon plateau, where the Niger rises, is covered by a type of sedge vegetation consisting of fine, wirelike tufts interspersed with bare rock surfaces. From the Fouta Djallon to well below the Niger’s confluence with the Benue, the river flows mainly through savanna grassland country. In the north the grass is short and discontinuous, and thorny shrub and acacia wood occur. In the south of the grassland region, tall, tussocky grass is interspersed with fairly dense wooded vegetation. About the latitude of Onitsha, the river enters the high rainforest belt, which merges below Aboh with the mangrove swamp vegetation of the delta. Many varieties of fish are found in the Niger and its tributaries; the chief food species are catfish, carp, and Nile perch. Other Niger fauna include hippopotamuses, at least three different types of crocodiles (including the much-feared Nile crocodile), and a variety of lizards. There is a rich collection of birds. Geese are found in the lake region, and herons, egrets, and storks are found both on the river and around the lakes. The striking crown bird is found wherever there is open ground in the grassland zone, and pelicans and flamingos are particularly associated with the upper Benue area. Smaller riverine species include white-headed plovers, crocodile birds, sandpipers, curlews, and green-red shanks. Biodiversity The river has thirty six (36) families of freshwater fish with nearly 250 species, 20 of which are found nowhere else on Earth but the Niger. The major fish species are catfish, carp, and nile perch. Other fauna of the Niger River include hippopotamuses, at least three different species of crocodiles, and a variety of lizards. The West African manatee, which faces extinction, lives in the river. The African Lion is also found in the Niger river Basin.. The Niger River basin is the largest basin in West Africa. It covers six agro-climatic zones in nine countries (Figure 1) and presents a cross-section of the complex development issues of West African societies. The main livelihood is traditional, low input, rainfed farming, but ranges from nomadic pastoralism in the north, irrigated and fertilized agriculture in parts of Mali, Niger and Nigeria and fishing throughout. The Inner Delta in Mali is one of the largest wetlands and multi-use systems in Africa at three million hectares with over one million herders, fishermen and farmers. Much of the population in the basin suffers from extreme, chronic poverty and remains vulnerable to droughts and malnutrition. The rich ethno-linguistic diversity, recent independence and ongoing political insecurity further complicate the development of the basin.
The quantity of water entering Mali from Guinea (40 km3/yr) is greater than the quantity of water entering Nigeria from Niger (36 km3/yr), about 1800 hen further downstream. This is due among other reasons to the enormous reduction in runoff in the inner delta in Mali through seepage and evaporation combined with almost no runoff from the whole of the left bank in Mali and Niger. Algeria and Chad together cover about 9% of the total Niger River basin, but there are almost no renewable water resources in these areas. The most important areas of the Niger basin are located in Mali, Niger and Nigeria (25 % in each of these three countries). Mali and Niger are almost entirely dependent on the Niger River for their water resources. In the case of Niger nearly 90% of its total water resources originates outside its borders (the Niger River and other tributaries from Burkina Faso and Benin). Wildlife West Africa’s river systems harbor impressive aquatic biodiversity, from a global to individual river-basin scale. The current system of protected areas of the Niger Basin includes numerous inland waters of high priority for the conservation of aquatic biodiversity, from 24 Ramsar wetlands (several of which are transboundary) through to wetlands without formal protection, but which are locally critical for the provision of a wide range of ecosystem services used by people. Risks of climate change Risk of population explosion Risk of diseases Risk of flooding Risk of biodiversity loss Risk of loss of wetland resources Risk of continuous watergrap (Dams) TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY OF THE RIVER NIGER AND ITS BASIN The top priority concerns and potential action of the SDAP are (i) the conservation of the basin's ecosystems, (ii) the development of socio-economic infrastructure, and (iii) capacity building and stakeholder involvement. These priority concerns are all intricately linked to sustainable development which cannot exist without them.
the river’s productivity. Adaptation of Economic Activities to the Natural Rhythms of the River. Intensified human use of the Niger River floodplain is vulnerable to regional cycles of flood and drought. Much can be learned from traditional resource use patterns that provided resilience through diversity. Operation of Existing Dams to Replicate Natural Flood Pulses. Water releases from existing dams can be timed to mimic natural flow patterns, resulting in benefits for food production and biodiversity conservation. Awareness of the river’s rich natural value. Crucial to other practical measures will be building awareness among diverse communities – including decision-makers – of the range of natural functions and values of the Niger River. With a regional strategy for sustainable use and development of the Niger River and related resources, this vital and productive ecosystem can continue to support the need to feed, clothe, and shelter the growing population of West Africa, whilst conserving its exceptional natural values A) ASSESSMENT OF CROSS-CUTTING THEMES A.1 Water resources and catchment area management The water resources theme cross-cuts all the others and integrates most of the SDAP priority development issues. The key ideas are listed below. The hydrological regime of the river and its tributaries is closely linked to the monsoon and is episodically subject to great falls. The monsoon flood wave and the dry season following it set the pace for the basin's activities. The development zones are unequal in terms of surface water resources. The underground resources are badly understood at river basin scale and seem to be little used. Abstractions of water, mainly for agriculture, are constantly increasing. Surface water resources are so far only under control to a small extent, mainly focussing in the downstream part of the basin, and the hydroelectric production potential is under-used; there are many projects which plan to increase water control and hydropower production. Water resource management must take ecosystem requirements into account. The Inner and Outer Deltas, which are outstanding ecological areas and bases for economic activities related to their ecological wealth, are highly dependent on the upstream flows in the river. Knowledge about water resources is still insufficient. Water policies at basin scale are now emerging. The analysis of these 10 key ideas enabled us to list the following key issues: (i) ensuring access for the local populations to good quality water, (ii) ensuring and disseminating information about water: knowledge about water resources (quantity and quality) and about abstractions, (iii) maintaining and making better use of the existing hydraulic structures, (iv) saving water, (v) integrating climate change in the development scenarios that are studied, (vi) incorporating existing integrated water resource management policies, (vii) finding the right balance between developing the use of water resources and its impacts on the environment in order to alleviate poverty, which is the fundamental goal, and (viii) sharing the benefits related to the water at basin scale and at regional scale. The last two points are the main subject of Phase 2 of the SDAP, which will compare the different development scenarios, thanks in particular to economic and hydraulic modelling tools. A.2 Environment and biodiversity The Niger Basin is a place of very rich biodiversity, a large proportion of which is related to water. Most of the basin habitat is savannah with dry forest in Upper Guinea and thorny tree and shrub savannah upstream and downstream of the inner delta. Flood plains play an essential part as hosting places for migratory species, food sources and seasonal habitat. Some places in the Middle Niger-Benue (Makurdi, Katsina ala − Woro Bokki) contain vast stretches of untouched habitat. The wetlands in the basin support a great many migratory birds (350 bird species in the Inner Delta). As for fish, WWF lists 19 areas of importance in the basin. A fairly high number of these sites can be found in the Upper and Middle Niger and the Benoué. As for the outer delta of the Niger, it is an exceptional biodiversity conservation area because it contains several different physical/chemical types of water and many different habitats. The outer Niger delta, mainly composed of fresh water habitats, brackish water habitats and marine and mangrove ecosystems, has over 400 fish species and exceptional endemism compared to elsewhere in the basin. Regarding waterbirds, thirty-five (35) areas have been identified by WWF, the most important ones being in the Inner Niger Delta and the Middle Niger areas. Species diversity is exceptional virtually all over the basin, for the sub-region as well as for the basin and at world scale. In the Inner Niger delta, several species are supported in a percentage of individuals corresponding to the RAMSAR "1%" category. The main habitats are the flood plains and waterbodies adjacent to the Niger River bed. Lastly, the areas identified are, as a majority, areas which host large numbers of migratory waterbirds: they are seasonal migratory stopovers. There are quite a lot of important areas for other vertebrates. The habitat varies from riverside gallery forests to savannah woodland and flood plains with hydroagricultural development structures, etc. The endemic and/or endangered species are mainly hippopotamus, crocodiles, manatees, giraffes and elephants. The wealth of species is said to be exceptional for the sub-region and the Niger Basin. As for the Outer Delta, it is a place of exceptional wealth at world scale, thanks in particular to its diversity of aquatic mammals, primates, turtles, etc. The degradation of habitat is a considerable threat to the Niger Basin's ecosystems. This is mainly due to climate change, to dams which change the flows and sediment transport in the river, to irrigated agriculture which transforms flood plains, to natural and anthropic erosion in the catchment area, to deforestation, to the overexploitation of fish resources, to the direct discharge of waste water (domestic and industrial) into the river, and to pollution in the Maritime Delta as a result of oil-related activities. There are three types of possible response to these threats to the environment and biodiversity: (i) organising resources for environmental conservation, (ii) promoting sustainable management and resource sharing, and (iii) improving capabilities to manage biodiversity, especially at local level. A.3 Human dynamics and land-use Human dynamics concerns the analysis of demographic change and all the factors likely to influence it. The analysis of the population in the Niger Basin shows that there are some high inequalities. In 2005, it was approximately 106 million inhabitants, over 70% in Nigeria. The expected growth rate is 2.63% on average per year. The population density is generally on a strong rise from the upper to the lower part of the basin and it ranges from 4 to 25 inhab/km² upstream of the Inner Delta and 516 inhab/km² in the Outer Delta. The population is very young (over 50% are under 15). The urban development rate, increasing all over the basin, ranges from 20% in Niger to 65% in Nigeria. The priority issues all point to alleviating poverty and improving living standards. They consist of (i) setting up better planning and management of the access of the population to resources in order to iron out the disparities in the basin, (ii) concerted organisation and management of migratory flows, and (iii) implementing the measures dictated by good governance strategy, especially to secure investments and protect the population, including controlling fraud and smuggling.
The Niger Basin countries signed the agreement to create the Niger Basin Authority (NBA) in 1980. The agreement was reviewed in 1987 for better focus on NBA objectives. The idea was for the NBA to be more operational and to promote integrated, sustainable management of the basin's water resources: the ultimate goal being to meet the socio-economic requirements of the populations in the basin. The new Agreement assigns the following specific objectives to the NBA. Harmonize and coordinate national policies to develop the Niger basin's water resources, Take part in development planning by preparing an integrated development plan for the basin, Promote and participate to the design and operation of infrastructure and joint interest projects; Ensure surveillance and control of all forms of navigation on the river, its tributaries and subtributaries in conformance with the Act of Niamey, and Take part in the formulation of applications for support services and funding for the studies and works necessary to develop the basin's resources.
The solutions to these functioning problems are very important institutional issues for the Basin. They must be based on decision aids that are either being developed or to be developed. These decision aids will enable asset management, operational management, tactical management and the sharing of the benefits from the infrastructure and works related to water resources. B) ASSESSMENT OF THE ECONOMIC SECTORS B.1 Agriculture In the countries composing the Niger basin, agriculture is a key sector of the economy, in terms of producing value added (between 25 and 40% of the GDP depending on the country), generating jobs (between 30 and 92% of the labour force) and achieving food security. Irrigated agriculture is the highest consumer of water. It represents 89% of the estimated abstractions in 2005. The following comments can be made concerning agricultural water consumption: the Inner Niger Delta had the largest used irrigated surface area in 2005, the Offices zone was the highest consumer of water in 2005 and should remain at the top of the list, the development zone including Kainji dam and the future Kandadji and Toussa dams is third in terms of surface area and water consumption, the expected evolution of irrigated surface area in Niger assumes that the rate of development will undergo a noticeable increase.
The main weaknesses are the partial coverage of food requirements, difficulties managing irrigation schemes and the insufficiency of support services, financing and marketing facilities. The opportunities lie in the potential to increase the irrigated surface area and thereby making a better contribution to food security, in water savings and improving irrigation scheme management, and in the improvement of rainfed agricultural performances. Threats on agriculture are mainly linked to the risk of disparities in the development of irrigation schemes without optimising water resources and scheme management problems. In the future, agriculture, as a sustainable development process, must seek to (i) maximise the part played by irrigation in food security, (ii) optimise the use of water resources, in particular thanks to large scale development projects (dams, irrigation scheme development), (iii) control water consumption and (iv) increase the agricultural productivity of the water used.
Livestock activities in the Niger Basin are of significant weight in the economies of the Basin countries, especially for Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali and Niger. In 1989 in the basin, there were approximately 16 million TCU but in December 2005 the count had risen to about 28 million. Livestock rearing activities essentially cluster around the Niger Loop up to Kainji, on the right bank tributaries of the Liptako Gourma area and upstream of the Benoué basin. The main issues linked to this economic sub-sector are (i) the improvement of knowledge and the control of ongoing development in the sector, (ii) matching livestock development with the construction of large infrastructure and the development of irrigation planned in the Basin and with their negative impacts, especially on fodder, (iii) improving tools to assess the negative impacts of the works on livestock and (iv) setting up the appropriate compensation measures for people affected by the infrastructure.
Fishing and aquaculture in the Niger Basin are important for food security and for employment, especially in the IND and the Outer Delta and around existing dam reservoirs. About 240 000 tons of fish are produced every year in the Basin. The main issues are: (i) How can the vulnerability of the fishing sector be reduced in terms of competition, climate change, increasing human poverty and environmental degradation? (ii) How can sustainable development be achieved in the fishing sector with the large scale infrastructure works planned? (iii) What mitigation measures can be set up for people affected by the development of the infrastructure? (iv) How can aquaculture be developed in the Niger River Basin? (v) How to protect the basin's fish stocks?
The per capita energy consumption in the Niger River Basin is extremely low: about 0.3 TOE per inhabitant per year, while the African, world and North American figures are respectively 0.63 TOE, 1.76 TOE and 8.46 TOE. Electricity consumption is 70 kWh per inhabitant compared to the African average, 740 kWh. The most relevant scale of analysis for the electricity grid is West Africa because many electricity transfers allow the exchange of electricity with the Niger Basin. The countries who export electricity are Nigeria -60% of its production), Ivory Coast, Mali and Ghana. The electricity demand should grow by 17% per year on average in the Niger Basin. While the hydroelectric power production potential of the basin is underexploited, the biomass is overexploited, renewable energies are underdeveloped and hydrocarbons are spread unequally over West Africa, to the benefit of only a small part of the Niger Basin's populations. The main challenges in the energy sector are of several kinds, from improving the conditions of access to reliable, cheap, environmentally friendly energies, to the improvement of overall management of the sector at basin level and for all West Africa in order to make it into an instrument to alleviate poverty and ensure sustainable development. The main issues identified are (i) setting up institutional frameworks, (ii) making better use of the energy-producing potential of the basin (especially hydroelectric production potential), (iii) replacing fuelwood and (iv) improving inter-State cooperation (especially by harmonising national policies). B.5 Mining sector The Upper and Middle Niger Sub-Basins have significant mining potential (gold, diamonds, uranium, etc.). Mining is often small-scale mining but it causes very serious damage to the environment. In the lower Niger basin, gas and oil wells are a serious cause of degradation to the mangrove. Their gas emissions cause acid rain in the area. Also, generally speaking, mining products with their high added value only bring benefits to a very tiny proportion of the total population in the Niger basin. Therefore the issues consist of (i) finding a balance between the economic development of the mining sector and environmental and social aspects in the Basin and (ii) developing the mining sector while sharing the wealth it produces. B.6 Forestry The total woodland and forest area in all the NBA member countries according to the assessment conducted in 2001 is 835 000 km². Almost 5% of the active part of the Niger Basin, i.e. approx. 75 000 km², is either gazetted forest or forest reserves. Forestry resources are dwindling because they are overexploited (land clearing for agricultural reasons, increasing demands for wood products, the demand for energy, bush fires and desertification). The resulting situation exposes the soils to erosion and is gradually degrading the catchment area. Forestry has a high impact on the poorest social classes who depend on woodland to find domestic fuel, for cooking, for construction materials and for medicines. The main issues are: (i) How can forest resources be made sustainable? (ii) How can development policy and forest conservation be brought into balance? (iii) How can bush fires be controlled and managed? (iv) How can domestic energy strategy be extended to the whole basin, the same as in Mali and Niger?
There is a great difference between Nigeria, where industry and the services bring in 50 and 23% of the GDP respectively, and the other countries where they account for 20 and 48%. In Nigeria, the industrial sector is predominant thanks to the processing of mining products. In the rest of the basin, there is relatively less industrial activity: factories are concentrated nearer to large towns and urban areas. The main types of industry noted are brickyards, the food industry (dairies, slaughterhouses, oil mills, soap factories, etc.), textiles, tanneries and dyeing factories. The basin's industrial resources have potential for growth, especially in the food industry. The development of cotton growing and the promotion of certain economic activities in agriculture, livestock and fisheries in particular should help raise the level of industrialization in the basin. The development issues for the industrial sector are (i) taking into account the environmental and social aspects, in particular at basin scale, in the rules for running industrial facilities, (ii) sustainable management of natural resources, (iii) sharing the benefits with the poorest populations. Trade is relatively intense in the Niger Basin, which explains the importance of the tertiary sector. It is characterized by the involvement of both urban and rural populations, by the predominance of agropastoral products which are either imported ready-made or locally made, and by the existence of cross-boundary trade. The issues for the development of trade are linked to those for consumer products and transport, especially river transport. B.8 Tourism Despite the touristic interest of the Niger Basin (ecotourism seems particularly appropriate for the area), tourism is absent in general. However, the Basin has several reserves and large natural parks where ecotourism, hunting and sightseeing tourism could be developed: the IND, the Upper Niger National Park, W Park, Waza Park and Kainji National Park, for instance. The Niger Basin has a unique natural and cultural heritage that could be put to use to complete other development activities (generate additional income, slow down the depopulation of rural areas...). The use of this heritage is also a possible form of cooperation at regional scale. The main issues are: (i) How to promote tourism, its sustainability and its beneficial effects for the poorest populations; (ii) How to combine tourism and sustainable development.
During the last ten years, the ratios for access to drinking water and sanitation have only slightly improved in the Niger Basin countries. The ratio for access to sanitation in rural places has even fallen. Access to basic services is much greater in urban zones than in rural ones (the urban area coverage rate is approximately twice as high as the rural one). On average, in 2000, 58% of the inhabitants of the 9 countries in the active Niger Basin had access to drinking water and 58% had access to sanitation. These data hide real inequalities and are strongly influenced by the fact that over 50% of the basin population live in Nigeria. Not having access to safe drinking water is one of the explanations for the low life expectancy and high prevalence of disease in the basin. Unsafe access to water can also reduce the value of work. Moreover, statistics do not take account of the difficulties people —especially women— encounter to get safe drinking water.
knowledge about and use of groundwater in particular, since such sources are under-used in the basin. All issues related to integrated water resource management at basin level are primordial: (i) only sustainable, integrated management will offer good control of water resources and make water available all over the basin, (ii) integrated management can only be achieved by improving information on the possibilities of supplying drinking water in the basin, (iii) only sustainable, integrated management can offer good quality water everywhere in the basin and reduce pollution, and (iv) better knowledge about ground water resources is essential for integrated management.
The main characteristics of the health situation in the basin are poor coverage, poor access to basic social services and poor social indicators. The personnel available is insufficient to cover the demand and the great inequality between towns and the rest of the basin is striking. Infant mortality is very high in the Niger basin (154 to 262 deaths out of 1000 births, compared to under 20 in Europe, for example). Maternal mortality is also very high in the Niger basin (ranging from 690 deaths in Côte d'Ivoire to 1 600 deaths in Niger for every 100 000 births, compared to under 50 in Europe, for example). The prevalence of HIV among people aged 15 to 49 was very high in 2003 but there was a clear decrease between 2001 and 2003 (except in Côte d'Ivoire). Altogether 1.8 million children were orphaned through AIDS in 2003 in Nigeria. In the Niger Basin, health is at a very low level, even compared to average health levels in Africa. The situation is to a large extent due to water supply and sanitation conditions. Water-related diseases (malaria and diarrhoea are the most widespread and cause the highest mortality rates in the Basin) are estimated to account for over 80% of the illnesses in the basin in Mali and in Côte d'Ivoire, and the virtually uniform characteristics of health in the Basin indicate that this is probably the case in most of the basin. The main health-related issues are strongly linked to the Millennium goals and, in the frame of the SDAP, mainly consist of preventing waterborne disease (especially by improving access to drinking water) and malaria. C.3 Transport One of the objectives of West African integration policy is that the 15 000 km of internal ECOWAS frontiers are lines that stimulate exchanges rather than preventing them, so that the people can move about freely, sell and communicate with the region. This is an important opportunity, not only for the transport sector but also for development in general. The road sector, in full expansion, is how having to face serious problems because of its lack of sustainability. There is little official river transport upstream of Nigeria, but with informal river transport, many zones along the river are not so isolated. Railways are also well developed and the present railway network is for the most part heritage from colonial times. The takeover of the Abidjan- Ouagadougou and Dakar-Bamako lines by the private sector is opening up new possibilities, especially for freight. Considerable progress is necessary, including the creation of better infrastructure, improved maintenance, elimination of road barriers and better use of information technology. The challenges will only be overcome through a regional approach because the national transport and communication systems are interlinked. This approach must be completed by taking into account the interdependence of the different types of infrastructure. A prosperous, efficient port makes the access road more attractive and vice-versa. A railway stimulates road traffic towards the stopover town… Consequently, there is an urgent need for a regional integrated multimodal transport plan, answering both development requirements as well as import and export requirements for the countries in the basin (main transport corridors).
As a conclusion to the SDAP Appraisal phase, the following paragraphs summarise the main issues identified by priority theme. F.1 Ecosystem conservation in the Niger Basin Issue n°1: Develop knowledge about water resources and their management • Improve knowledge about aquatic environments and their sensitivity (especially wetlands) • Manage available data on water resources and abstractions • Institutional and organisational structuring of data management (Observatory) • Progressive procedure for notification, consultation or authorization of abstractions (for new abstractions and disturbing usages) in coordination with NBA • Modalities for controlling abstractions • Development of tools for analysis, disseminating information and decision-making, especially in times of crisis (shortages, pollution, etc.), Issue n°2: Prevention of water pollution (DWS – Health – Heritage issues) • Sewerage and waste management • Industrial and mine water treatment • Minimum dilution flow • Prevent oil pollution in the Niger Delta • Manage inflows from fertilisers and pesticides • Develop the “polluter pays” principle Issue n°3: Wetland and biodiversity conservation • List sensitive sites • Control wetting and drying up of wetlands • Adapt the management of activities in protected wetlands (respect protected species habitats) • Control invasive species Issue n°4: Catchment area protection and development • Prevent sedimentation and control silting in dams • Prevent deforestation (fuelwood, fires) and reforest • Bank protection • Agricultural and soil and water conservation methods • Accompany the increase in cotton-growing areas • Accompany the increase in grazing land needs • Plan soil and land use F.2/ The development of socio-economic infrastructure Issue n°1: Improve the existing situation • Hydro-electric power production (Kainji), • Existing schemes to improve the water use efficiency (irrigation), Issue n°2: Define the combination(s) of large infrastructure and management instruction in order to: • Guarantee priority usages for DWS, livestock and environmental flows, • Enable equitable, sustainable development of irrigation: how many hectares can be developed and what is the cropping intensity stepping up from the present 535 000 ha to the 2 million hectares planned by 2025 (or at maximum full term)? • Minimise negative impacts of infrastructure on the environment, especially on wetlands (deltas) and on health, etc. • Optimise hydroelectric production in the whole basin (positive balance and better spatial distribution): integration of new sites and rehabilitation of existing facilities (Kainji), • Attempt to increase navigable periods on the river. Issue n°3: Identify promotional measures to accompany the development of infrastructure in order to: • Maximise benefits: e.g. measures to support fishing in dam reservoirs (cold storage, etc.) • Reduce the impacts: e.g. prevention of water-borne disease Issue n°4: Identify mitigation measures in areas subject to the negative impacts of the infrastructure/works. E.g. to counterbalance the economic losses caused by reducing the submerged area in the Inner Delta • support the development of fish-farming to compensate for the reduction in fisheries • build controlled submersion zones to compensate for the reduced natural submersion • regeneration of wetland pastures (bourgoutières) Issue n°5: Identify development action in the parts of the River Basin that are not along the river (where future infrastructure cannot control water) • Catchment area improvement and management (SCP), • Support the development of economic sectors (rangeland hydraulics, irrigation, fish-farming etc.)
• Improvement of the basic services. • Structuring investments on transport, telecommunications, etc. F.3/ Capacity building and stakeholder involvement Issue n°1: Development of cooperation mechanisms • Define a legal and regulatory framework for cooperation which will be the Water Charter, currently being prepared and to be completed: - by technical annexes on tactical management, - by sector agreements, - by sub-regional agreements to cover IWRM sub-issues (in addition to existing agreements such as the CMNNC, bilateral agreements on Kenié/Fomi and Taoussa/Kandadji). • The creation of functional entities so that cooperation to achieve the Integrated Management of Water Resources from the Niger River can become operational, - at basin scale: study on the feasibility of a Permanent Water Commission to be initiated, - at sub-basin scale: study on Sub-basin Committees to be initiated (linked to sub-issues) taking account of existing structures (River Basin, ABFN, ALG, etc.), - on specific problems: Consultative Panel on large infrastructure, • Set-up of consultation procedure to consult member states for the issue of abstraction permits and/or discharge permits with various decisional levels depending on thresholds to be defined, • Set-up of conflict prevention and management procedure, Issue n°2 on Asset Management & Ownership: A few ideas for thought as a result of the appraisal • Official ownership of the infrastructures. Various formulae possible: from strictly national property to joint property shared between Member states (OMVS), • Financing and sharing benefits from large infrastructures: even if the structure officially belongs to a member state, the financing and sharing of benefits can be divided between several member states within the scope of action of the structure in question. • The other asset management and ownership activities concern a variety of tasks: - Perform studies or have studies performed, - To obtain legal authorization (or consent from the Niger basin community in the present case); - Mobilise funding, - To build the infrastructure or have it built; - To define, finance, and implement mitigation measures; - To set into operation and to operate the infrastructure; to ensure maintenance; - To establish a contractual relation with the beneficiaries, to receive the income earned by the infrastructure, etc.; - To ensure its financial management. • For these different tasks, several formulae can be contemplated: - Full asset management and ownership, - Asset management under a contract: the contract can define the delegation far-reaching responsibilities. The Asset Manager/Owner can then concentrate on patrimonial asset management, - Setting up asset management companies: The Asset Manager/Owner is a specialised company and contracts out the management and operation of its infrastructure, - Asset management assistance: a more "à la carte" formula,. - Project management supervision: this is more a technical supervisory function during infrastructure construction because the Asset Manager/Owner wants the project to be supervised by an entity other than the Engineering Project Management Consultant(s). - Management services contracts: when the infrastructure is in operation, its management can be contracted out to specialised contractors, even if an asset management company has been set up. Issue n°3: Creation of framework for consultation and participation • The institutionalising of the Regional Forum of water user stakeholders in the Niger River Basin, • Creation of official spaces for consultation and information (study on the participation of civil society): 9 National users' coordination units and 1 regional users' coordination unit; • Create Sub-basin Committees, • The importance of involving historical governance (traditional chiefs) in consultation spaces. Issue n°4: Training and capacity building for stakeholders • NBA capacity building especially to prepare for asset management functions, and capacity building for stakeholders who are competent at national level (NFPs, IWRM institutions), • The need to propose capacity building programmes to give the users the means of playing an efficient part in the process (study of the capacity building plan and public participation – CBP & PP).
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