European parliament working paper
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- The use of the language in various fields
- Conclusion
- References
LuxembourgIntroductionLëtzebuergesch is regularly spoken as an everyday language in the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg (2,586 km2) by c. 300,000 of its inhabitants, and as a dialect by some 50,000 people in neighbouring areas around the towns of Arlon (Belgium), Thionville (France), Bitburg and Prüm (Germany). Exact figures are impossible, because of the complex multilingual situation in the Grand Duchy and missing survey data for the surrounding areas. The Grand Duchy has 435 700 inhabitants (official estimate Jan 1, 2000). 37% of these were not Luxembourg nationals: chiefly Portuguese (13%), Italian (5%), French (3%), Belgian (3%) and German (3%). Moreover, c. 70,000, about 1/3 of the workforce, commute from adjoining regions in Belgium, France, and Germany. 42% of the active population are Luxembourg nationals, 28% foreign residents, and 30% non-residents. For centuries Luxembourg was subjected to foreign occupation or domination, and thus deep-rooted cultural and linguistic influence. The medieval Duchy evolved from an Ardennes count’s founding, in 963, of a ‘small castle’ (the meaning of ‘Luxembourg’) into a territory which at the end of the 14th century was four times the size of the present Grand-Duchy. In 1340 the king of Bohemia divided his Luxembourg dominion into German and Walloon administrative sectors. From 1443 to 1815 Luxembourg was ruled by Burgundy, Habsburg Austria, Spain, France, Austria and France again. In 1815 (Congress of Vienna) land was ceded to Prussia, and Luxembourg came under the King of the Netherlands’ personal rule (1815-1839). The city and fortress were Prussian-held until 1867. In 1839 independence was proclaimed according to the Treaty of London. Half the remaining, French-speaking territory was ceded to Belgium (Province de Luxembourg). The 1868 Constitution made the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg a hereditary monarchy; it is now a parliamentary democracy. After 1918 it left the German Customs Union (Zollverein) and formed an economic union with Belgium, replaced by the 1944 Benelux union between Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. Luxembourg was occupied by Germany during both World Wars. Lëtzebuergesch belongs to the West Moselle Franconian German dialect area. During its (still ongoing) development from a rural dialect to a fully-fledged standard language, the gap between Lëtzebuergesch and standard German has widened on all linguistic criteria. It is no longer automatically understood by speakers of standard German. It has a 175-year written tradition, a codified orthography, dictionaries and a grammar, teaching and learning materials including audiovisuals. For centuries it has coexisted with French and German as territorial languages. French and German have functioned, in different measures, as administrative languages and vehicles of regional communication and economic co-operation. From the early 19th century to World War II, French and standard German were official languages, having equal rights, as stipulated by decrees, the Constitution of 1848 and its 1868 revision, whereas Lëtzebuergesch was the unofficial and subordinate everyday language. From 1940 to 1945 German was the official language. After that French became the official language, German was reduced to an (indispensable) ‘working language’ and Lëtzebuergesch remained the ubiquitous spoken language. In 1984, a special language law194 made Lëtzebuergesch the national language, French the legislative language, and French, German and Lëtzebuergesch the administrative and judicial languages. Ten years later the government began to promote the study and development of Lëtzebuergesch. In 1998 it formed a 12-member ‘Conseil permanent de la langue luxembourgeoise’ (CPLL195), to monitor, study, describe and disseminate the national language, and to advise the government in language matters. New working groups study spelling reform and compile dictionaries. A government-backed research institution is the Institut grand-ducal196 and its Section de Linguistique, d’Ethnologie et d’Onomastique. The current official Lëtzebuergesch orthography was reformed in 1999197. A spell checker198 for Lëtzebuergesch is being developed, as is a lexicographic project to compile a corpus-based ‘Practical Dictionary of Lëtzebuergesch’. All these are financially and politically backed by the Ministry of Culture199. The Ministry of National Education200 also promotes Lëtzebuergesch. In 1994 it commissioned a teaching manual (and an audio CD-ROM), co-funded by the EU (L wéi Lëtzebuergesch) and updated in 2000 with a communicative approach (Lëtzebuergesch fir all Dag). The development of self-learning material (a video course with illustrated workbooks) was funded by professional associations, the EU (Leonardo/Lingua) and the government (Da Lass: Land, Leit a Sprooch). The CPLL has been entrusted with drafting proposals to reform the teaching of Lëtzebuergesch language and culture in schools (all levels and branches). The use of the language in various fieldsEducation: Lëtzebuergesch is pivotal only in the early years of schooling. In pre-school, close attention is paid to developing language skills, especially the use of Lëtzebuergesch as a means of communication inside and outside school201. For children who grow up with another first language this is often their first intensive contact with the language. Educational policy promotes the ‘école unique’ for literacy instruction through Lëtzebuergesch and German of children of whatever linguistic background, in order to promote linguistic and cultural integration. It is used less as a medium of instruction after the lower and middle grades of primary school, and officially (though not always in practice) not at all in secondary schools. The language is taught for an hour a week in the six years of primary education and in the first year at secondary level. Since the early 1990s an optional Cours de civilisation luxembourgeoise has been offered in the last two years of upper secondary education. Language courses for adults are organised by the national Centre de langues, local municipalities and institutions, private language schools, NGOs and businesses, and various initiatives in the Grande région, especially in Belgium and France. At post-secondary level Lëtzebuergesch features only at the Institut Supérieur d’Etudes et de Recherches Pédagogiques (ISERP), where pre-school and primary school-teachers are trained (and within other institutions, as an informal language), but a department at the Centre Universitaire de Luxembourg is planned. In the 3rd and 4th semesters of primary-school teacher-training courses, Lëtzebuergesch is compulsory, and its history and literature are also compulsory in secondary teacher (post-graduate) training. There have been Lëtzebuergesch language courses at Universität Trier202 (D) and the Centre for Luxembourg Studies at Sheffield University (UK)203. The courts: There are no empirical data on the use of languages in the courts. Lëtzebuergesch can and is used, especially for oral communications. French is the most important language: it is the language of law and judges and lawyers are usually trained at French-speaking universities, but defendants and witnesses may also use Lëtzebuergesch. Linguistic practice varies, though those involved tend to adapt pragmatically to the circumstances and the interlocutors. In criminal proceedings, the judge will only address Luxembourger defendants in Lëtzebuergesch; witnesses may testify in this language, and all other parties speak French or Lëtzebuergesch. Prosecution and defence pleadings are in French. The court’s decision and the record of proceedings are drafted in French or German. In civil cases, proceedings and arguments are always in French, and the judgement is likewise in French. Luxembourger witnesses are questioned by the judge in Lëtzebuergesch, as they are in criminal cases. Public authorities and services: According to the 1984 language law, administrative bodies are required to answer – ‘dans la mesure du possible’ – in the language of their petitioners. On their own initiative, national and local administrations in written communication mainly use French and, when addressing the public, also German. Oral proceedings are mostly in Lëtzebuergesch, as a reflection of the general linguistic situation in the country. In Parliament Lëtzebuergesch and French are equally used. Following pressure by Actioun Lëtzebuergesch–Eis Sprooch204, all public place and street signs are now in French and Lëtzebuergesch). Mass media and information and communication technology: No print media in Luxembourg are even predominantly in Lëtzebuergesch. Most use it more or less randomly alongside German and French (and sometimes English, Italian or Portuguese). Several radio stations broadcast exclusively or partly in Lëtzebuergesch, and there is a daily evening feature on TV. The language is also used on Luxembourg-based Internet websites, and in chats and e-mails. The Arts: Lëtzebuergesch is widely used in performing arts, in all oral and written literary genres, and increasingly also for non-literary purposes in different areas of knowledge205, on a par with the other traditional languages of Luxembourg, French and German. The business world: Sociologists have recently argued that there are really two different (partially overlapping) job markets in Luxembourg: a traditional national one dominated by Lëtzebuergesch, and an international one that is multilingual but French-dominated. In response to complaints by Lëtzebuergesch-speaking customers that they could not use their native language in shops and other businesses, but were forced to use French, recent efforts have been made by foreign staff, on their own initiative or that of employers, to learn at least some Lëtzebuergesch. Thanks to the rise in prestige of Lëtzebuergesch over the past 20 years and the growing use of the language in the media, it is increasingly used in advertising, and some localised versions of consumer products (like food or cosmetics) are now marketed. Family and social use of the language: The 1984 language law has boosted the development of Lëtzebuergesch, which continues to be the exclusive means of oral communication between native Luxembourgers in all circumstances and whatever the social standing of the interlocutors. It is the symbol of Lëtzebuergesch national identity. It is also gaining increasing importance as a language of writing, for all literary genres as well as for non-literary usage. It is in fact rapidly being developed as a fully-fledged, fully functional modern language. It is generally accepted to be the language of social integration and cohesion. ConclusionDespite the symbolic importance of Lëtzebuergesch, the overall linguistic situation of Luxembourg is characterised by instrumental multilingualism. Linguistic and cultural assimilation here means adopting one of the traditional patterns of multilingualism. The situation may be summarised as follows: French keeps the country together, multilingualism keeps it going, and Lëtzebuergesch sets it apart. ReferencesDavis, K. A., Language Planning in Multilingual Contexts: Policies, Communities, and Schools in Luxembourg. Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 1994. Fehlen, F. et al., Le Sondage ‘Baleine’: Une étude sociologique sur les trajectoires migratoires, les langues et la vie associative au Luxembourg. Recherche Etude Documentation, Hors Série 1. Luxembourg. Newton, G. (ed.), Luxembourg and Lëtzebuergesch. Language and Communication at the Crossroads of Europe. Clarendon, Oxford, 1996. RESTENA, Réseau Téléinformatique de l'Education Nationale et de la Recherche: http://www.restena.lu. Weber, N., ‘Multilingualism and Language Policy in Luxembourg’. In: Deprez, K., du Plessis, Th. (eds.), Multilingualism and Government: Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Former Yugoslavia, South Africa. Van Schaik, Pretoria, pp. 82-91, 2000.
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