Faculty of education department of english language and literature

In Brno, 2016

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I would like to express my gratitude to PhDr. Alena Dobrovolná, Ph.D. for her kind support and motivating guidance as well as her helpfulness and promptness with which she provided valuable advice as my supervisor.

Table of Contents

Introduction

Politicians and other authorities in many states try to react to these changes by investing into modern classroom devices or implementing more IT classes into education plans. However, it is also important to look for new, more engaging ways of teaching which reflect the changing views on schools and their task to prepare learners for real life in the 21^st century.

Although the Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) does not primarily focus on using IT in classes, this approach concentrates on developing such skills and strategies which learners can use in their further education or future jobs. CLIL encourages cooperation and respect among learners, reflection of one’s own work and outcome and autonomous learning. Students are provided support to find their own ways to study (discover different learning strategies) and thus become independent learners who are responsible for their own success or failure.

One of the most important qualities of a 21^st century student should be the knowledge of at least one world language and yet many Czech students are not able to manage a simple conversation in English even after several years of studying this language at school. There are many causes of this unfortunate situation but it is not the aim of this diploma thesis to cover all of them.

The method of CLIL is still unknown to many teachers in the Czech Republic; both the content teachers and the language teachers likewise. Although CLIL is believed to be one of the successful ways to enhance knowledge of foreign languages among students, many schools and teachers are reluctant to change the existing approaches despite being obviously ineffective. Therefore, this diploma thesis aims to enhance the general awareness of CLIL among teachers (or other interested parties) and also motivate them to search for new methods to improve their teaching strategies and help their students to succeed.

Even though almost all school subjects can be taught in a foreign language, this diploma focuses on music lessons only. While teaching at a primary school, I gained first-hand experience in how difficult it might be to make music lesson attractive for learners. Despite all the official documents establishing formal plans for music education I still believe that music lessons should be engaging and enjoyable above all. Thus, the activities for music lessons, which could be found in the Appendix of this work, are designed to be both instructive and appealing to learners (often in the form of games).

The diploma thesis is divided into two main parts. The first part aims to explore the theoretical conception of CLIL method in general and the practical part explains how the CLIL activities were designed. The most important outcome of this work (the activities for CLIL lessons) can be found in the Appendix.

I decided to choose this topic partly because of my interest in music and partly because I strongly believe that the idea of CLIL approach is one of the beneficial and meaningful ways to improve the level of English language of pupils and students in Czech schools. My original intention was to try out the activities in a classroom in order to get valuable feedback. However, I was not teaching at the time of writing the thesis and I was not able to find a teacher (or a school) willing to pilot the activities for me.

The main goal of this work is to prepare CLIL activities for music lessons and present them as ready-made materials for teachers. In order to do that, some theoretical conceptions of CLIL need to be described so that the necessary foundations can be set for designing the activities.

I Theoretical Part

The second chapter describes the current situation of CLIL implementation in the Czech Republic and aims to summarize some benefits and difficulties which are specific to Czech educational environment.

Then, the short insight into music education in Czech schools is shown in chapter 3. It focuses on the official documents issued by the Ministry of Education and shows how the aims and principles of music education are defined by official authorities.

In the fourth chapter, the reader will discover whether music lessons at lower secondary level of education are suitable for CLIL, what kinds of activities are most popular among teachers and students and where the shortage of convenient materials discourage teachers from applying CLIL in music lessons.

The last chapter of the theoretical part deals with some aspects of designing a CLIL lesson. The principles of CLIL are reminded and transformed into more specific features and patterns which each quality CLIL lesson should incorporate.

The whole theoretical part of this work tries to uncover CLIL in the most general sense and then more specifically in Czech schools. It also aims to reflect music education in the Czech Republic and how CLIL could be implemented in music lessons. The practical activities for music lessons based on the theoretical foundations can be found in the second part of the thesis and in the Appendix.

1. CLIL in general

   1. What is CLIL

If a teacher wants to apply CLIL in his or her lessons, they cannot simply come and start teaching the content subject in English (or other non-native language). As Coyle, Hood and Marsh emphasize “attention is given both to the language and to the content” (3). In CLIL, the focus has to be on the subject matter students are required to learn as well as on the language in which the content is taught. Mehisto, Marsh and Frigols point out that “the essence of CLIL is [dual-focused] integration” (11). This dual focus means that “language learning is included in content classes” and “content from subjects is used in language-learning classes” (Mehisto, Marsh and Frigols 11). Later in their work, these authors even speak of multiple focus, as CLIL can also integrate several subjects in cross-curricular themes and projects (29). Of course, in practice that means that subject teachers and language teachers should co-operate much closer than in standard educational programmes. Co-operation is, in fact, another important feature of CLIL.

Mehisto, Marsh and Frigols explain that there is also a third goal which CLIL seeks to achieve and that is improving learning skills (11). Successful adoption of the learning skills should help learners in achieving the language and content goals. Other authors do not speak of learning skills in particular but rather highlight that CLIL stimulates cognitive flexibility and also helps learners gain more sophisticated level of learning (Coyle, Hood and Marsh 10-11). Throughout the years of learning students should be becoming more and more autonomous learners.

Some researches show that CLIL encourage learners to engage higher order thinking skills (according to Bloom’s revised taxonomy of thinking skills) and that CLIL also improves learners’ metacognitive strategies (Šmídová et al.).

Very often the supporters of CLIL approach also emphasize authenticity and natural use of language as a key concept for motivating students. Indeed, CLIL can offer learners the authentic texts and other materials as well as allow them use language naturally. All these factors can enhance students’ motivation to learn both content and language matter. For many students, such an experience might be the first encounter with natural use of language in their lives.

The innovative way of teaching (in comparison with standard educational programmes) and the fact that both language lessons and subject lessons are enliven with new and fresh elements can also serve as one of the motivating factors, as students usually respond enthusiastically to most innovations in lessons.

Other important features of CLIL include active learning and scaffolding. Active learning basically means that learners take more active roles in lessons than the teacher does. Not only do they speak more but they also take part in setting outcomes of lesson or in assessing their own progress as well as their peers’ work. The teacher’s role is more of a facilitator (Mehisto, Marsh and Frigols 29).

Scaffolding is closely related to critical thinking and also to Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (Coffey). First, the starting point of every new topic (lesson) should be students’ existing knowledge and experience. Second, learning should be challenging enough so that the students do not get stuck on a current level but are motivated to make progress. Finally, the challenge should be within a learner’s reach in order to avoid discouraging them by difficulty. Scaffolding is a term labelling “a variety of instructional techniques used to move students progressively toward stronger understanding and, ultimately, greater independence in the learning process” (“Scaffolding”). In practice, scaffolding can take form of various activities that are further discussed in the chapter 1.7.

In this short introductory chapter, I tried to summarize the building blocks of CLIL approach. Some of the features of CLIL mentioned here are discussed in detail later in this work.

2. 4Cs model

The 4Cs conceptual framework for CLIL was defined by Do Coyle and it represents “four contextualize building blocks” (Coyle, Hood and Marsh 41) for effective CLIL practice. These 4Cs comprise:

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  content (what learners learn),
  
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  communication (the language learners learn and use),
  
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  cognition (how learners learn and think) and
  
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  culture (intercultural awareness) (see Fig.1).
  

Fig 1: The 4Cs framework for CLIL (Coyle 10)

There is mutual relationship between these elements. Students not only acquire knowledge and skills (content) but also create and develop their own knowledge and skills. Naturally, acquiring content is related to process of learning and thinking (cognition). The level of cognitive demands is closely interlinked with language difficulty – the more difficult cognitive demands are the more difficult language is required to match them. Also, the process of learning language requires cognitive processes and there is close connection between the language and the content as well as between the language and culture (c.f. Coyle, Hood and Marsh 42). Learning in the non-native language might reveal some resemblances or differences between learners’ own culture and the culture of the target language.

3. Various CLIL models

CLIL models range from theme-based language modules to cross-curricular approaches where a content subject is taught through the foreign language. The latter model has become the most prevalent in Europe in the last few years. (57-58)

Vázquez writes about yet another range of models describing the current situation in Germany using terms like “the classical model (full CLIL)” or “the foreign language integrated model” (99-100). These are just a few examples of CLIL models found in books and journal articles. The problem with all these labels and terms is that there is no unified terminology used to describe these different ways of teaching. Therefore, a very similar way of approaching CLIL can be called different names or one term can cover very similar CLIL approaches. The situation differs from one country to another or even from one school to another within one country.

Even though this terminological disunity is slightly confusing for dealing with some theoretical aspects of CLIL, it is rather convenient for practical application of CLIL at schools. Naturally, the current situation in each school is different. Schools deal with their own problems and have different resources (financial, equipment, personnel) at their disposal. It is this diversity of CLIL approaches that might help each school to find a solution suitable for their needs.

Still, this vast range of models can be sorted out into two big groups: soft CLIL and hard CLIL. In a soft CLIL approach “teaching and learning is focused mainly on language and so is language-driven” (“Soft CLIL”). The main goal of soft CLIL is language learning. A practical implementation can mean that in English language class there is more subject-based content than usual. The hard CLIL approach means that “teaching and learning is focused mainly on the subject and is therefore content-driven” (“Hard CLIL”). The main goal of hard CLIL approach is content learning. We can talk about hard CLIL in situations where schools use the second language as the medium of instruction.

4. Benefits of CLIL

First of all, CLIL improves target language. It is one of the main reasons why most schools implement CLIL in their educational programmes and it is also one of the main aims of CLIL.

Language learning is incorporated into content lessons and content learning is incorporated into language lessons. Thus, the language in content lessons is used meaningfully and for specific purpose. In language lessons, the content is reused and repeated and thus stored better in learners’ memory.

CLIL also focuses on developing learning skills and learning strategies. Students get some insight into their own learning. They get to know some tips which might facilitate their learning, shorten their study time or enhance the way they store information into their memory. Learners basically come to know themselves as learners.

By putting language into meaningful use, CLIL increases learners’ motivation. Students use the target language for a real purpose. They can immediately put their theoretical knowledge into practice. They know why they learn.

In CLIL lessons, language is authentic and natural and used for a meaningful purpose. The teacher does not have to make up example sentences to translate from the first language into the second one. The classroom language is not artificial because it is determined by the specific content.

CLIL also improves communication skills. For example, in a content lesson a student knows the right answer in the first language but does not know (or cannot remember) the right vocabulary in the target language. Learners are encouraged to use synonyms, describe a process or simply say as much as they can in the target language. As a result, students tend to say much more in the second language even though their vocabulary might be limited.

Naturally, the CLIL approach is also associated with cross-curricular projects or events where more subjects are integrated into one unit. The cross-curricular nature of CLIL is obvious from the fact that the content and the language are taught at the same time. Sometimes, even more than one subject matter can be brought into one lesson, especially when CLIL approach is widely used in a whole school. The language teacher can make use of several content subjects in his or her language classes. The cross-curricular projects often come from increased cooperation among teachers which CLIL requires. Students get a chance to use their knowledge from more subjects simultaneously, look for connections and think outside the scope of one subject.

The increased cooperation between language teachers and content teachers is another benefit of CLIL. Not only does it result in the above mentioned cross-curricular project, it also helps with team-building process among teaching staff.

CLIL is also very students-centred; it builds on students’ existing knowledge and reflects on students’ needs and interests. While eliciting previous knowledge, students realize what they already know about a particular topic and where they lack. By focusing on students’ needs and interests, the teacher makes sure that learners are kept motivated and that they know why they learn.

Throughout the whole learning process learners are supported by scaffolding strategies. Not only week students need a lot of support while learning new things. Even the best learners can benefit from scaffolding as it facilitates the learning process. Learners are not born learners, they have to learn how to learn.

CLIL also encourages peer-work and good relations among learners. Peer-work is always preferred to frontal teaching because it enables more time for interaction and gives learners more space to express themselves in the second language. While working in pairs or smaller groups, students get to know one another better. Thus, learners benefit from better class relations and safer learning environment.

One of the aims of CLIL is to educate autonomous learners. This is done by focusing on learning skills and strategies and by supporting students in their learning process.

Cultural topics help learners realize that there are other cultures which might follow different social rules. By becoming aware of cultural differences, students should learn that no culture is superior and that they should respect members of other cultures. It should also help learners realize what their cultural roots are and why they are worth respecting.

Becoming familiar with learning content in non-native language is also a great way to prepare students for studying abroad. They are not afraid to study in a foreign country because they already know that studying in a non-native language is possible.

From marketing point of view, CLIL is a good tool for enhancing school image. The school which implements CLIL can be more attractive to both students and parents.

The list is not exhaustive and perhaps it is not even possible to create one. Plus, the benefits listed above could be sometimes seen as drawbacks (e.g. co-operation between language teachers and content teachers), as shown in the following chapter. Some more benefits can be found in Coyle, Hood and Marsh (17) or in Mehisto, Marsh and Frigols (29-31) or in Dale and Tanner (11-14).

5. Challenges of CLIL

First, there are not enough teachers trained for teaching CLIL. Although, the number of competent teachers is slowly increasing as CLIL becomes more and more discussed in professional educational environment, the situation is still far from being ideal. Also, the training of teachers and the implementation of CLIL into a particular school programme is very demanding and time-consuming process. It is almost impossible to handle the work without proper support from a headperson (a head lector). It is usually not difficult to persuade the school management that CLIL approach is very beneficial for learners. However, sometimes the most difficult task is to get the management to see the demanding nature of CLIL implementation into a school programme.

Even if there are teachers willing to teach CLIL (and they are supported by school management), they might lack support from their colleagues. If the CLIL approach is not a whole-school policy then it can cause constraints between CLIL-supporters and the rest of the staff in a particular school. Consequently, the CLIL teachers might feel the pressure and get discouraged from their efforts.

Very often, content teachers are afraid of CLIL because they might not feel enough confidence while using a target language in their lessons. As Vojtková and Hanušová explain, it is not necessary for the subject teachers to speak the target language in their lessons; for example, the activity is build upon a simple English text but the following discussion is carried out in Czech (11).

We must also mention the vast amount of workload that CLIL requires. Indeed, teaching CLIL is very time-demanding. It requires much more preparation time as well as bigger amount of co-operation between teachers. All of these reasons can be discouraging on their own, not to mention the shortage of suitable materials. One of the biggest problems teachers might face while implementing CLIL into their lesson is the fact, that ready-made materials are almost non-existent in comparison with standard English textbooks (although the situation is beginning to change for the better²). Most authentic materials are not appropriate for immediate use; they need to be adapted or shortened in order to suit the teacher’s need for a particular lesson. Also, the setting of goals and preparing activities for every single lesson as well as for longer time period requires careful planning and consideration.

Some teachers are simply too indolent to change their long-time routines. Sometimes, teachers recycle their old lesson plans over and over again (even the bad ones). They are stubborn and reject to try anything new on principle.

It is essential to discuss all these problems and any doubts with school leaders, teachers, parents and students. The discussions should be held from the very beginning, even before CLIL is implemented in a school. As with any innovations, the beginnings might be slightly unsteady. It is advisable to invite experts (if possible) or parents and students who have experienced CLIL in their schools to share their opinions (Mehisto, Marsh and Frigols 21). The questions and concerns of all parties can thus be acknowledged and minimized.

Many scholars have also carried out surveys, researches and studies searching for drawbacks of CLIL in schools where this method has been already applied. These problems seem to be more “practical” but we should keep in mind that they might have been caused by specific circumstances, which are unique in every country, region or school.

According to Pokrivcakova’s survey, CLIL places higher demands on learners and is even unsuitable for some groups of learners (87). She interviewed Slovak teachers who applied CLIL in primary schools, seeking their personal opinions. She also claims that sometimes the teachers “struggle to find a balance between language and content objective so that the content is not ‘neglected’ and learners, in fact, don’t learn less” (87).

Other possible disadvantage is pointed out by Pérez-Caňado, who argues that productive skills are less boosted in CLIL classes and are achieved at considerably lower levels of performance than receptive skills. This means that both speaking and writing skills are reported to be negatively affected in content-based context. Particularly oral production of learners is likely to fail to be successfully developed and improved in CLIL classes (qtd. in “Disadvantages of the CLIL Methodology Education Essay”).

As far as the problems of practical field are concerned, it is not easy to find a universal solution. As mentioned above, these problems usually arise from a specific situation which differs in every school. What might work here does not work in a neighbour town. Perhaps, the teachers dealing with these problems might seek advice from colleagues who already faced similar problems and see how they dealt with them. Nowadays, the professional discussions are not limited to face-to-face conversations. There are many (international) associations uniting teachers of CLIL, social network interest groups or open forums where teachers share their ideas and support each other.

6. Teachers

According to Hansen-Pauly et al., every teacher should master eight key areas of CLIL teacher education (6). The first area is learner needs. The teacher should be attentive to students’ differences in knowledge, experience, learning styles, language skills, etc. and reflect them in his or her teaching process.

The second area is multimodality. It means that teacher should use various techniques and ways of teaching (e.g. verbal and nonverbal) in order to approach students’ different needs.

Another area is called subject literacies. The teacher should be aware of linguistic aspects of his or her content subject; that means that the teacher should be aware of what language students need to know in order to be able to communicate the content.

The teacher should be also able to improve students’ awareness of context and culture (intercultural competence) so that students are able to use the right language in real-life situations. This forth area is called context and culture.

The fifth area focuses on cooperation and reflection. The teacher should be able to cooperate with his or her colleagues and also reflect on his or her teaching process.

Another area is interaction where the teacher aims to create different communicative situations, uses scaffolding and provides feedback to students’ language production.

The seventh area of CLIL teacher education is evaluation. Teacher chooses appropriate forms and methods of evaluation which have positive impact on learning and provide feedback.

And the last area is planning. The teacher defines content and language aims. While planning the teacher reflects the role of both the content and the language (Hansen-Pauly et al. 6).

Even more detailed and elaborate list of CLIL teacher competences can be found in “The CLIL teacher’s competences grid” (Bertaux et al.). The authors present nearly 30 competences which are classified into 14 different areas (e.g. CLIL policy, course development, interculturality, etc.). A slightly longer and even more comprehensive list of professional demands on CLIL teachers is summarized in European Framework for CLIL Teacher Education which “aims to provide a set of principles and ideas for designing CLIL professional development curricula [and] seeks to serve as a tool for reflection” (Marsh et al. 3). These demanding requirements for teacher’s professionalism can indicate what important and difficult roles teachers adopt when they decide to teach CLIL approach in their lessons. Therefore, it is necessary to start any CLIL programme with a proper preparation of teachers.

One of the key competences of every CLIL teacher is the appropriate level of English. There is no agreement among scholars what the minimum level of language should be when one wants to teach CLIL. It partly depends on what type of CLIL a particular school or teacher wants to practice (e.g. language showers vs. hard CLIL). Or it might be more accurate to say that the type of CLIL a particular school chooses depends on the language competences of its teachers. In some European countries there are regulations regarding teacher training standards which state the minimum required language level each teacher should achieve (for an example from Poland see e.g. Papaja 150). Where teachers are not competent (or confident) enough, it is advisable to start with soft CLIL activities (language showers, routine activities or instructions in second language).

In any case, if teachers are not familiar with CLIL (e.g. from a university) they need to get a proper training. It is impossible to meet all the demanding requirements listed above and implement all the important CLIL principles into one’s teaching without a specialized course. Such courses may also be great occasions to meet teachers from different schools and share professional experience.

1. Content teachers

Dale and Tanner also remind readers that there are other language inputs besides the teacher’s language which can be used in content lessons, for example video, audio or written materials (20). These can be prepared and brainstormed in advance with a language teacher’s assistance.

2. Language teachers

In order to apply the CLIL approach properly and get as good outcome as possible, it is important to bring at least some content matter into language lessons and practise it. The main focus is still on language issues but the content is determined by the concrete subject. Therefore, language teachers should be ready to get acquainted with the specific vocabulary and preferably also the methodology of the content subject(s).

3. Collaboration

When preparing the lesson, teachers might discuss among others: the aims of the subject lesson, materials which will be used, learners’ (active) roles, possible outcomes and others. Brainstorming the materials and activities for subject lessons should bring some ideas as to what aspects of language should be explained and practiced in language lessons (i.e. relevant phrases for explaining or arguing, relevant grammar and vocabulary etc.).

If both teachers are present in the subject lesson, the language teacher can provide feedback on learners’ language and take notes on some language issues which cannot be dealt with immediately but can be discussed in the language lesson. The subject teacher gives learners feedback on content issues. Unfortunately, very few schools can afford this joint model (two teachers teaching in one class) so teachers might want to look for different ways to cooperate. The subject teacher can take notes about learners’ language skills for his or her language colleague. Or, an audio or video can be recorded in the subject lesson for the language teacher to assess the language issues themselves.

After the subject lesson, teachers can design some follow-up activities for the language lesson. They can discuss some language matters as well as content matters which should be further practiced in language lessons. The language teacher might also give feedback on subject teacher’s language (e.g. after listening to the audio recording). The teachers can also discuss performances of individual students and assess their work.

7. Scaffolding

According to McKenzie (“Scaffolding for Success”), there are at least eight characteristics of educational scaffolding. First, scaffolding provides clear, step-by-step and user-friendly directions. Teachers try to anticipate any problem or uncertainties in advance and eliminate them if possible. Scaffolding also clarifies purpose. Learners are told why the problem is important and they are urged to care about it. Purpose and motivation are kept in the forefront. Students know why they learn the particular matter. Next, scaffolding keeps students on task. Learners are provided a clear pathway and kept form wandering “off-road”. It also offers assessment to clarify expectations. Learners are shown rubrics and standards that define excellence right from the beginning. They know the rules according which they will be evaluated. Scaffolding points students to worthy sources. Students are taught which sources are reliable and how to recognize them. Scaffolding also reduces uncertainty, surprise and disappointment. It eliminates distracting frustrations and maximizes learning and efficiency. Plus, scaffolding delivers efficiency. There is focus, clarity and time on task and students are kept channelled. And finally, it creates momentum. The channelling achieved through scaffolding concentrates and directs energy in ways that actually build into momentum.

There are many scaffolding strategies teachers can use in their classes. As Albert aptly remarks some of them are not only scaffolding techniques but it is just plain good teaching (“6 Scaffolding Strategies to Use with Your Students”). Some of these techniques are also related to critical thinking strategies. In fact, if the scaffolding works right, then learners should gradually adopt the critical thinking skills (e.g. reasoning, analyzing, problem solving, etc.).

One of the main ideas of scaffolding is doing tasks that enable learners to build on prior knowledge and internalize new concepts. Ideally, a lesson should start by activating prior knowledge. That means that the topic is brainstormed so that the teacher can see what students know about it or where they lack accurate information. Thus, the teacher gets a starting point for the lesson and the learners are provided with a familiar context upon which they can build the new information.

Scaffolding should also provide a safe learning environment because in “a scaffolded learning environment, students are free to ask questions, provide feedback and support their peers in learning new material” (“Instructional Scaffolding to Improve Learning” 1). In such environment, students should gradually take a more active role in their own learning and consequently, the teacher’s job is limited to mere facilitator. Firestone similarly argues that “when students are given the support they need early on when they’re learning something new, they stand a better chance of using that material independently” (“Scaffolding in Education: Definition, Theory & Examples”). The idea is to gradually reduce the scaffolding because in the end students should be able to work on their own, without any support from the teacher. Scaffolding thus helps to achieve one of the main goals of CLIL – train students to become autonomous learners.

Another scaffolding strategy is modelling. Students should be shown what exactly they are supposed to do. It is important to present an example of the desired outcome before students actually do it. Along with the final product students should be shown the evaluation rubric in order to know what will be the criteria for assessment. All the modelling should be as thorough as possible and it should be repeated if the students do not get it the first time. Firestone even suggests that after demonstrating the problem solving, teacher “repeats this process two more times, asking questions of the students along the way” (“Scaffolding in Education: Definition, Theory & Examples”). Gradually, students join the teacher in solving the problem until they are able to work independently. Then, the teacher steps away and lets students work on their own. If needed, more modelling is provided (Firestone).

If the task is very complex, it should be broken into several steps in order to make it more accessible to students.

Teacher should also provide students with enough time to process new information and express their answers (solutions/ideas). Students should get space to think aloud in order to formulate their ideas and share them with their peers. Some structured-talking strategies include think-pair-share,³ turn and talk,⁴ triad teams⁵ and others (Albert). Teacher should keep reminding the learners that no answer is a wrong one (keeping safe learning environment). It is important for every student not to be afraid to utter their answers out loud in order to formulate their thought into words and practice their speaking skills.

Using visual aids is a scaffolding strategy not only the “visual” students will appreciate. Providing multiple input in general will help learners better understand and remember new information. Visual aids include pictures, videos, charts, graphic organizers and literally any other visual that can “offer a visual framework for assimilating new information” (Lewis). As far as graphic organizers are concerned, some scholars suggest that they should not be the final products but rather scaffolding tools that help students guide and shape their thinking (Albert). Visual aids, especially pictures, can also serve as great props while teaching new vocabulary, or working with vocabulary in general (supposing the vocabulary can be depicted by pictures, of course).

Pre-teaching key vocabulary before reading might also facilitate understanding a new text. Students feel safer and the text seems slightly easier to understand. There are also other strategies where students are given no vocabulary hints beforehand but rather try to deduce meaning of the words from the context or try to eliminate any words which are not important to understand the main idea. However, especially with younger learners, it is advisable to use some pre-teaching and hints in order not to discourage them from the task.

To sum it up, there are various teaching techniques which help students guide their learning and make it easier for them. Some of them have been mentioned in this chapter and some of them could be also found in the designed activities which are included in the attachment of this thesis. As scaffolding in its broadest sense means support, we can claim that any strategy or activity a teacher uses in his or her classes to help their students (rather then throw them in at the deep end) is, in fact, scaffolding.

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