Since human beings emerged in ancient Africa, we have populated the most hot, cold, humid and dry regions of Earth. Only recently, through exploration of the harshest regions and deep under the sea, we have discovered that exotic life can thrive in extreme conditions of high salinity or acidity; in high radiation conditions or deprived entirely of sunlight. As we have shown, the first tentative steps in space exploration have already expanded humanity’s reach to the hostile environment of Earth’s orbit, while our robotic probes have reached out further. The brief sorties by the Apollo astronauts required only the facilities to sustain life for a few days on the lunar surface and no attempt was made to establish permanent facilities or exploit the local environment for power or materials.
Why send humans to space at all? The unique decision-making capabilities of humans allow us to respond to new situations by building on our in-built experience and knowledge. By sending humans to live and work in space, we can take full advantage of the intellectual capital and real-time reasoning that only humans can provide. A human can quickly find and tighten a loose bolt on a core-sample drilling rig, whereas it might take hours to programme a robot to do so, even if it had the means to sense the problem. Steve Squyres of Cornell University, the Lead Scientist for the Mars Exploration Rover project, advocates human space exploration and has noted that “we are many decades away from robots that can match humans even in the lab”
We now know that it is possible to return to the Moon with humans on a more permanent basis, and that it may well be possible to extract resources to help sustain humans to live and work with reduced dependence on Earth. Many more resources certainly exist on Mars, but the much longer journey time makes the technical requirements and risks (especially from solar radiation and galactic cosmic rays) more demanding.
[In the long term, having a sustained presence in space will allow us to maintain repositories of knowledge, history and even life to protect us against the worst disasters of the future.] [Culturally, when mankind becomes a multi-planet species, our relationship with Earth may change. It is sometimes said that the most important contribution of the Apollo programme to human consciousness was the image of the Earth floating in space as seen above the horizon of the Moon, fragile and isolated in the emptiness of space. As more people live and work in space, perhaps we will value our home world even more.]
Theme 3: Economic Expansion
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Over the past 100 years there are numerous examples where government investment in infrastructure (railroads, highways, the internet…) or where the government was the first customer (the early use of aircraft for mail delivery…) has nurtured industries which have grown to be of major importance and now yield large tax returns to national treasuries.
hile the first stages of space activity were driven by nations through their space agencies, gradually business has played a bigger and bigger role. Companies provide voice telephony, mobile internet access and high quality television broadcasting to subscribers world wide using fleets of privately owned satellites as part of a multi-billion dollar industry. More recently, commercial Earth observation satellites have been launched, relying on government users as a key customer. Everyone can access data through software tools such as Google Earth. Countless users have satellite-based navigation equipment in their private cars.
[Already, far-sighted entrepreneurs are thinking about further commercial expansion into space. Opportunities could include privately managed crew and cargo transportation services, perhaps offered to governments in exchange for service contracts.]
Telecommunications and navigation services will certainly be needed at the Moon. [Maybe public private partnerships could offer such services to scientific users, while also offering news coverage to television networks, virtual reality presence for the general public or even the ability to control rovers on the Moon for a new generation of video game-players.] Sub-orbital space tourism is on the edge of becoming reality while others are preparing the way for space hotels. How long before the first tourists visit the Moon?
As the moon is rich in oxygen, bound into the rocks, perhaps it could be liberated for use by explorers, or converted to rocket propellant for use in the Earth-Moon economic sphere, without the need to raise it out of the Earth’s gravity well. The Moon seems to be rich in titanium, an expensive but strong and light metal whose use today is largely restricted to the aerospace industry. Some are thinking about how to extract it for commercial gain. Longer term, the Moon could be useful as part of the energy economy. If fusion reactors become feasible, the Moon’s known abundance of helium 3 could become valuable.
Much of the technology for space exploration will be created in business, and business will find unexpected ways of exploiting the know-how in the wider economy. Government can assist by stimulating links between the public and private sectors in innovative ways – prize funds are one example. For business to be confident to invest, it needs the certainty of a long-term commitment to space exploration; the opportunity to introduce its ideas into government thinking; and the rule of law. This means, agreement on such difficult issues as property rights and technology transfer. The Coordination Mechanism foreseen as part of the Global Exploration Strategy will provide a forum to discuss these important issues.
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Many of the capabilities and technologies developed through space probably would not have been appeared in its absence, even with the same level of investment, because the difficulties and constraints of doing things in space stimulates creative minds perhaps like no other branch of engineering.
any areas of applied science and engineering will be stimulated by the scientific goals of space exploration. This knowledge – how to do space exploration – will yield returns here on Earth. This is a certainty. Hundreds of examples of spin off from investment in earlier phases of space exploration have already been documented. Examples include the scratch-resistant optical lenses derived from astronaut visors and the lightweight thermal blankets distributed to victims of natural disasters, which are derived from spacecraft mylar film.
More subtly, space exploration brings together diverse expertise, creating opportunities for innovative new ways for working. Systems engineering of very complex systems and the design of highly reliable mechanisms and software are two example skills driven by space exploration now used in the wider economy.
Some of the challenging technologies for the new era of space exploration include:
efficient power generation and energy storage;
space and surface transportation;
communications and navigation;
healthcare for human explorers including tele-medicine;
autonomous operation and smart decision-making for robotic explorers;
planetary resource extraction and utilisation;
on-orbit spacecraft servicing;
human-robot cooperation,
safe habitats with low resource use life support and environmental control.
Development of these technologies will be driven by the constraints of space exploration such as minimising mass and designing for reliable operation in a high radiation environment. Such attributes often lend themselves to terrestrial products and services. For example, instrumentation developed to search for life on Mars aboard robotic spacecraft is now being turned into a portable tuberculosis diagnostic machine for use in the developing world. We will need to support human and biological life far from Earth by minimising the use of resources and recycling as much as possible. Meeting these challenges will foster linkages and spin-off opportunities in fields such as medicine, agriculture and environmental research and elements of solution toward achieving a sustainable development on planet Earth.
Human explorers in all ages have faced the complexities and uncertainties of their journeys. This has demanded the utmost intelligence, ingenuity, and innovation. Human presence in space and on other planetary surfaces requires the support of many technologies and synergies between man and machine. Yet some experts feel that such developments will be a key requirement in the new age of space exploration, especially in exploring and then exploiting planetary surfaces to support human operations in remote locations.
Theme 4: A Global Partnership
Space is an unforgiving environment in which to live and work. No nation has the resources to take-on all the challenges of space exploration at once. Space-faring nations have worked together from the earliest days in many bilateral or multi-lateral partnerships.
The Apollo-Soyuz project of the 1970’s was a striking example not just of technical co-operation but of political détente at the height of the Cold War. The seventeen- nation European Space Agency has its origin in the wish to build scientific links across the whole continent. Today, ESA has built a family of launchers, built meteorological satellites, and explored Mars in a programme far beyond the capabilities of any one European country and JAXA’s Hayabusa, the world’s first sample return mission from Itokawa, has cooperation with NASA. The International Space Station program, arguably the largest project of its type ever undertaken, has clearly demonstrated the value of a partnership approach. The U.S., Canada, Europe, Japan and Russia have achieved together what no one nation could have achieved alone. And, in the process have forged strong ties including cultural and political understanding.
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The shared challenges of space exploration and the common motivation to answer fundamental scientific questions encourage nations of all sizes to work together in a spirit of friendship and cooperation.
eanwhile, novel US and European scientific instruments will soon orbit the Moon aboard an Indian spacecraft, while the Chinese Double Star spacecraft are probing the relationship between the Earth’s magnetic field and the Solar wind with the help of instruments built in Europe. China and Russia are planning a joint mission to one of Mars’ moons, and Japan and Europe are cooperating on a mission to the innermost planet, Mercury.
The success of these existing relationships point to what more could be achieved with a global strategy for space exploration. Through a partnership approach we will develop a common understanding of our respective interests; we can share lessons learned and thus avoid costly mistakes; and we will discuss scientific results that will help us plan the future.
Most importantly, we need a forum to discuss practical issues such as interoperability and other building blocks of space exploration. Internationally agreed standards that allow a mobile phone bought in China to work in Canada or a car made in Germany to meet US safety laws are critical to underpinning the global economy, and will be just as important as the boundaries of human activity extend beyond our planet. Complex issues such as the protection of areas of scientific importance may arise and can be discussed before they block progress.
Finally, through sharing a common language of space exploration, specific objectives could be shared and opportunities for joint projects may well emerge. Thus, by leveraging national funds and coordinating mission objectives, nations can build upon, strengthen, and expand existing global partnerships through space exploration.
This spirit of partnership will indirectly contribute to enhancing global security by providing a challenging and peaceful activity that unites nations in the pursuit of common objectives. The spirit is also an inclusive one, because the goal will be to expand direct and indirect participation in space exploration to involve all nations of the world and their citizens.
Theme 5: Inspiration and Education
Space exploration excites and inspires us to think and wonder about the world in which we live. We share the sense of pride in achievement and the pain of failure. Space exploration like no other of today's endeavours catches our attention in a special way. For younger generations it causes them to stop and think about what "they" want to achieve, and for many a vibrant space exploration programme steers them towards science and technology education and careers. Space exploration creates a workplace that provides limitless possibilities for creativity, challenge, and motivation. This is a powerful magnet to attract and sustain new generations of scientists and engineers, most of who will find careers in the wider economy.
Many countries are concerned about a decline in their science and technical talent – a space exploration program can help turn this trend. Space exploration provides a wealth of material for educators, in all disciplines, to draw on to make their lessons, more exciting and real, which in turn motivates the students. If we want kids to study science and engineering subjects, space exploration presents many exciting questions such as whether it is possible to generate rocket fuel from lunar soil or to understand whether comets distribute the chemistry of life through our Solar System.
While attempting to answer these questions, we will use advanced technologies to engage our citizens in ways that enable them to share the excitement of exploration and discovery. Creating virtual experiences, more advanced than what has been done in the past, the people of the world will be able to follow our activities through opportunities that allow them to more intimately engage in taking part as discoveries unfold.
[Add:
specific data on space impacts on education from case4space report
Challenger learning centres, Scottish space school etc.
modern communications and engagement techniques]
To summarise the goals and objectives of the Global Exploration Strategy, five themes link the narrative of space exploration.
We will gain (1) New Scientific Knowledge, assisted by technical innovation. In moving out into the Solar System, we target (2) a Sustained Human Presence - both real and virtual – instead of making brief, temporary visits - not least because in due course this will allow (3) Economic Expansion to happen. These goals will be enabled by (4) Global Partnership, making our individual contributions more productive and the overall effort more robust. Finally, we aim to provide (5) Inspiration and Education, [by engaging our societies in the journey, the discovery and the benefits.] can editor improve last line???
Chapter 3 M
Space exploration is a journey using both robotic and human missions. By using a consistent framework to understand our journey towards a permanent presence at each destination, we can see how space exploration follows a logical set of steps. This starts with acquiring basic knowledge and may culminate in a permanent human presence when this is feasible. Our rate of progress along each pathway may vary, but the Global Exploration Strategy will allow different contributions to the overall journey to be co-ordinated to the benefit of all.
apping the Space Exploration Journey
Space exploration is not a new venture. It is the continuation of efforts started with the launch of the first satellite and it evolves through cycles of progress. We develop technologies, test them in space, make new discoveries and then want to know more. A characteristic of these cycles is that we proceed from short term, very focused missions to longer and more comprehensive ones. For example, humans have been on the Moon for brief sorties but then we needed to build space stations to learn how to live for months in space. Now we can combine the two skills by establishing a sustained human presence on the Moon.
Human presence in space can range from simple presence to full autonomy, meaning the capability to sustain human life with no or minimum external support. On Earth we have developed a complex transportation and communications infrastructure such that providing goods and services is routine. We have not reached this stage in sustaining either robots or humans away from planet Earth.
We are ready to take the next step. A vision for the next era of the next cycle is emerging just as the current era is maturing. The latest space station, the International Space Station is being assembled and used as a laboratory in space by a successful partnership of fifteen nations. However, the long term space exploration envisioned here is also very different from the International Space Station. It is not a single space project but instead will comprise multiple missions and projects – large and small - to several destinations. Nations not involved in the ISS can and are making valuable contributions to space exploration.
Individual projects may emphasise specific goals more than others: for example, focusing on robotic science at Mars or testing technology needed for resource utilisation at the Moon. However, each will contribute towards the overall goal of extending the human frontier, step by step. By understanding this process, we can see how both robotic and human space exploration relate to a continuum of progress.
Our journey towards continuous living and working at each destination involves similar steps. This diagram shows how far we have progressed towards sustainable exploration for key destinations. The central vertical bar in the diagram shows the threshold that must be crossed for sustainable space exploration or, to put it another way, between simply tackling a new environment and "living" there.
L EO means Low Earth Orbit e.g. the location of the International Space Station
[Clearly, we are on the "learning curve" towards the sustainable exploration of space. Humans have spent long periods in Low Earth Orbit – the record held by Valeri Polyakov is over 14 months as part of the ten year continuous occupation of the Mir space station - and have neared the threshold for sustainability. But, it is a quantum leap to breach this threshold even for sustainable robotic activities in Low Earth Orbit and beyond. For example, while in principle we have the technology, we do not yet have the infrastructure to refuel our communications satellites. Often they are put out of service simply because they run out of the fuel necessary to keep them in their orbits.]
In space exploration, the basic knowledge about the destination is usually gained using robotic spacecraft. Several generations of robotic exploration may be required before human exploration is useful or justified. For example, we may first send orbiters to remotely sense the surface and identify safe locations for landing; then landers to investigate the surface directly; and finally automatic sample return missions to allow material to be examined in terrestrial labs.
Today we have a limited amount of material on Earth that’s been returned from outer space. Within the next decade, this knowledge will be increased by robotic missions returning material from certain asteroids and one of the moons of Mars. The first robotic sample return mission to the surface of Mars is likely to occur at a similar date as the human return to the Moon, giving some indication of how large a technical challenge it represents. Yet we can be sure that the scientific returns will be great.
Although we have achieved a virtual presence at all the main bodies of the Solar System through robotic probes, for the more distant destinations (’Beyond’, in the terms of the diagram), the knowledge accumulated so far been limited by constraints of our space technology. Thus, we have glimpsed a river-bed and rocks of ice on Titan, but do not know if rivers still flow or what the ice is composed of. We believe that the ice of Europa covers a liquid ocean, but we do not know for certain how deep it is or whether it might contain life. In brief, we have only accomplished the first tentative steps towards understanding these destinations and we cannot speculate if and when humans will reach them and what technology they will use.
Clearly, this schematic picture of exploration shows that experience gained at each step of the journey enables the next one. However, while the exploration is stepwise for a particular destination, parallel progress towards other destinations may well generate useful experience valuable for all. Progress along the pathway to each destination will be assisted by increased co-ordination between projects that may at first seem to be unrelated.
By recognising that a human return to the Moon is only part of a bigger, longer term goal of reaching Mars and other destinations, we can place the different elements of our Global Exploration Strategy into a systematic context.
Chapter 4
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