Guide on Gender Analysis of Census Data Full Draft of 6 December 2012 Contents
Appendix 4: A Brief Overview of the Evolution of Gender Statistics
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Appendix 4: A Brief Overview of the Evolution of Gender StatisticsGender statistics are defined as statistics that adequately reflect differences and inequalitiesin the situation of women and men in all areas of life (United Nations, 2012). They have evolved significantly over the last thirty years, beginning with the First World Conference on Women in Mexico City (1975). At the time, Women in Development (WID) was an emerging paradigm, and the conference demands mainly focused on the inclusion of women into statistics, addressing the underreporting of women’s issues and the lack of sex-disaggregated data.31 The political mobilization announced 1975 the International Women’s Year, and also proclaimed the following years as the United Nations Decade for Women (1976-1985). An important book that illustrates the WID paradigm was Women’s Role in Economic Development, by Ester Boserup (1970), which showed that women made important economic contributions that were being ignored by governments. The two subsequent Women’s Conferences – Copenhagen (1980) and Nairobi (1985) – affirmed a growing demand for the production of sex-disaggregated data. Par. 92 of the Report of the Copenhagen Conference, for instance, proclaimed that “all data-collecting agencies should give a sex and age breakdown of any information they gather, wherever relevant.” In addition, paragraph 95 suggested that “a set of statistical indicators should be established by which progress towards equality between the sexes can be monitored” (UN, 1980). Another significant shift was the change in perspective, from statistics on women, in the 1970’s and 1980’s, to statistics on gender – mirroring the evolution from the women in development (WID) dominant strand of thinking to the gender and development (GAD) approach. This shift recognized that gender identities are relational and that the roles of all social actors, both men and women, are constructed within a gendered society – even though power relations have tended to make women, as compared to men, a more vulnerable segment. With the GAD perspective, advocacy stressed not only the requirement of sex-disaggregation but also the importance of introducing specific questions concerning only men or only women into the census or survey questionnaires. Moreover, gender mainstreaming throughout the statistical operations became an end in itself. Historically, this perspective change was followed by country reports and booklets, as noted by Corner (2003: 2): The initial work focused primarily on statistics on women and a number of countries produced booklets on Women in Statistics that primarily confined themselves to presenting data on women. However, it was soon recognized that the situation of women could be adequately described and analysed only in relation to the comparative situation of men. As a result, the focus moved from statistics on women to statistics on women and men. In line with the GAD approach, the Platform for Action of the Fourth World Conference32 (Beijing, 1995) formulated claims for gender statistics by means of a specific strategic objective (H.3) – along with other references throughout the document. [cite this in full ? Annex ?] The Beijing +10 declaration introduced in Par. 25 the focus on “men and boys as gendered persons”, further recognizing their capacities in bringing about changes in attitudes, relationships and access to resources. More recently, the conceptual approach of The World’s Women 2010: Trends and Statistics (United Nations, 2010 a) is based on the premise that “statistics on men figure as prominently as statistics on women.”33 Miller and Razavi (1998) discuss the benefits and limitations of various analytical models along a continuum of integrationist to transformatory: the Gender Roles Framework (GRF), the Development Planning Unit (DPU), the Social Relations Framework (SRF), Gender and Macroeconomics and Alternative Analytical/Training Frameworks. ……. Finally, there have been noteworthy conceptual shifts in the attempt to capture gender differences, specificities and disparities with more accuracy. In this vein, conceptual adjustments were made and new analytical categories were created. The International Labour Organization (ILO), for instance, revised its definition of economic activity to include informal sector and non-market activities. Since 1993, the range of activities to be considered as ‘extended economic activity’ includes some activities that had previously been classified under ‘household activities’34, thus capturing somewhat more adequately the economic contributions of many women, particularly in rural areas, to household income and family businesses. Despite these efforts, many commentators have noted that “the distinction between ‘subsistence work’ and ‘housework’ is still unclear in ongoing labour force surveys” (Ayhan, 2001) and that a large amount of women’s (unpaid) work is still excluded from conventional labour force definitions and statistics (UNECE/World Bank Institute, 2010). Since the mid-eighties, national statistical offices, too, have started paying more attention to statistics on women and to gender statistics. Statistics Sweden and Statistics Norway, for instance, were among the first countries to introduce a gender perspective by designating specific staff to work on gender statistics (Sweden) and establishing units or departments dedicated to collecting and analysing gender data (Norway).35 Ever since there has been much debate whether it is favourable to 1) have designated staff responsible for gender issues in national statistical offices; or 2) mainstream gender throughout the system by training existing staff. Although designated staff may play an important role in gender analysis, the risk that gender may be seen as a separate, detached issue within NSOs is not addressed. Mainstreaming gender issues throughout the national statistical system may enhance system-wide sensitivity and ensure that a gender perspective is adopted in all stages of data production and analysis. For this reason, gender advocates tend to support the second approach today: “the production of gender statistics has to affect the whole official statistic system and not only the single unit addressing gender, if there is one” (Sabbadini, 2008: 08). This is a bit contradictory with the calls for statistical data bases on gender made elsewhere in this document. In recent years, gender-related indicators and indices have also multiplied. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Beijing + 10 Declaration, for instance, reiterated the need for developing timely and reliable gender statistics, especially at the level of national statistical systems, suggesting sets of indicators and strategies for engendering the monitoring and progress reporting. Numerous websites of National Statistical Offices now provide data and indicators to be used for gender analysis and advocacy (see http://www.census.gov/aboutus/stat_int.html). Organizations such as UNECE, the World Bank, ILO, and universities in many countries have developed web-based data resource centers dedicated specifically to gender statistics. International databases such as GenderInfo have also been developed, gathering information from different countries. In 2006, the Global Gender Statistics Programme was established by the United Nations Statistics Division. As part of this programme, three Global Fora on Gender Statistics were organized in 2007 (Rome), 2009 (Accra) and 2010 (Manila) with the purpose of promoting the advancement of gender statistics among decision makers and other user groups. The Forum also aims at reviewing best practices in the incorporation of a gender perspective in national statistical systems, at discussing the measurement of women’s participation and contributions to the economy and gender dimensions of health statistics (UNSD, 2008, 2009, 2010) [This should be United Nations]. The Global Fora have established a regular and continuing basis for sharing experiences and supporting the implementation of adequate technical procedures. Nevertheless, even though gender issues are addressed more systematically now than they were a few decades ago, there is still a long way to go. Much has to be done to tackle current challenges and obstacles, such as the gender data gap in particular world regions, the development of adequate legislation and methods regarding gender statistics and the need to intensify the interaction between data producers and users at all levels – as discussed in Appendix 4. Text Box 12: Evolution of gender statistics - Historically, gender statistics gradually received increasing importance and attention in conferences, meeting, forums and other political and advocacy events, especially following the Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing, 1995). - Change in approach from statistics on women alone to statistics on gender equality issues - following the WID to GAD shift in perspective. - Past experience along with review and reformulation of strategies led to adjustments in definitions and to the creation of new analytical categories (ILO, FAO, UNFPA, UNIFEM, etc). - A number of NSOs have created specific departments or units for mainstreaming gender issues in official statistics. - Increase in the number of gender statistics sources for incomprehensive areas (time-use surveys, gender-based violence surveys, access to decision-making in all spheres, etc.). - Proliferation and revision of indicators and indices. - Elimination of gender bias in some data sources. - Additional questions in surveys and censuses that are useful for gender analysis. - Review and adjustment of data collection instruments and methodologies for information from a gender perspective. - Dissemination of gender statistics increasingly more regular and frequent in many countries, including through technological devices such as web-based data centers. - Increase in high level policy dialogues and meetings specifically on gender and statistics. 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