However, on various measures of time pressure, Japanese respondents reported lower levels of stress
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| Figure 1 Classification of subjective theories. The relationships between work (Wand leisure (L) are symbolized by connecting lines the directions of determination are indicated by arrows the valences of the domains of life are marked as positive (j) or negative (k) pensation are not necessarily mutually exclusive, and positive correlations in certain subgroups can be canceled out by negative ones in others, resulting in zero-order correlations. In this context, however, it should be noted that compared with the original work–nonwork research (Staines 1980), later studies were more likely to differentiate between occupational groups (e.g., Kabanoff and O’Brien 1986) and emphasize the impact of the increase in women’s employment on their work-free domain and associated life satisfaction (e.g., Tait et al. One objection to the neutrality hypothesis opens up anew perspective if the assumption that there is no consistency of actions between the two domains of life (or that these are determined by different personality traits) is rejected on the basis of an interactional paradigm, zero-order correlations must be interpreted differently. These may well signify a subjective conception that one’s own thoughts, feelings, and actions are independent. This conception could then be interpreted as a compensatory strategy operating whenever extremely negative experiences at work threaten to overshadow leisure time. When adults are directly asked whether they see a relationship between the two domains of life, the classification of subjective theories that is, conceptual patterns, shown in Fig. 1 is obtained (Ho Thus, not only conceptions in which work is seen as the cause of leisure experiences and actions (forms, but ones which postulate a reversed influence of leisure on work (forms 6–9) are conceivable. It is evident that private problems can be compensated in working life (form 6), or that thoughts about favorite nonwork activities can detract from work (form The final form (10) consists of a reciprocal interaction of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of occupational and private life. This classification has proved its worth in first empirical investigations. Subjective conceptual patterns can also be formulated in a generalized form and in view of personal past and future. They develop over the course of the occupational and nonoccupational 8716 Leisure, Psychology of biography in connection with real constellations of restrictions and scopes of action. 4. Final Remarks on Future Research As mentioned above, insufficient attention has been paid to housework and family life in work–leisure research. While the significance of this field has decreased since the early s, there has been an expansion in research investigating the relationships between occupation and family life. Here, equally little attention has been paid to leisure in the narrow sense. Topics of investigation include conflicts due to the discrepancy of occupational and private goals, the double burden placed on working mothers, and integration problems both in everyday life and in the planning of the life course. In the future it would be useful to relate the research traditions of work and leisure to those of career and family—this would be of interest primarily where new forms of work such as tele-homework (cf. Bussing and Aumann 1996) are concerned. Occupational and gender comparisons would then be possible, and the significance of both leisure (in relation to paid work and the family) and family life and housework (in relation to paid work and leisure) could be investigated. Further research topics could include partners and their shared organization of leisure, their shared projects, and the ways in which they manage to integrate the shared domains across the life course. See also: Leisure and Cultural Consumption Leisure, Sociology of Bibliography Beck P 1996 Perso W nliche Projekte—eine empirische AnnaWherung an komplexes Handeln. Asanger, Heidelberg, Germany Bu $ ssing A, Aumann S 1996 Telearbeit und das Verha$ltnis von Betrieb, Familie und Freizeit: Eine Bestandsaufnahme. Zeit- schrift fu W r Arbeitswissenschaft 50: Ho EH 1992 Arbeit, Freizeit und Perso W nlichkeit. Wissen- schaftliche und allta W gliche Vorstellungsmuster. Asanger, Heidelberg, Germany Kabanoff BO Brien GE 1986 Stress and the leisure needs and activities of different occupations. Human Relations 39: 903–16 Little BR Personal projects and the distributed self: Aspects of a conative psychology. In Suls Jedi on the Self. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, Vol. 4, pp. 157–85 Meissner M 1971 The long arm of the job A study of work and leisure. Industrial Relations 10: 239–60 Staines G L 1980 Spillover versus compensation A review of the literature on the relationship between work and nonwork. Human Relations 33: 111–29 Tait M, Padgett MY, Baldwin T-T 1989 Job and life satisfaction: A reevaluation of the strength of the relationship and gender effects as a function of the date of the study. Journal of Applied Psychology 74: 502–7 Wilensky H L 1962 Labor and leisure Intellectual traditions. 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