Ijc workshop white paper on exotic policy

160 ^ These were (1) the oligochaete Ripistes parasita, 1980, (2) the oligochaete Phallodrilus aquaedulcis, 1983, (3) the spiny water flea, Bythotrephes cederstroemi, 1984, (4) the European ruffe, Gymnocephalus cernuus, 1986, (5) the four-spine stickleback, Apeltes quadracus, 1986, and (6) the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha, 1988. Compilation by Ms. Margaret Dochoda, biologist, Great Lakes Fishery Commission.

161 ^ These were (1) the tubenose goby, Proterorhinus marmoratus, 1990, (2) the round goby, Neopobius melanostomus, 1990, (3) the quagga mussel, Dreissena bugensis, 1991 (4) the NZ mud snail, Potamopyrgus antipodarum, 1991, (5) the amphipod Echinogammarus ischnus, 1995, and (6) the cladoceran water flea, Ceropagis pengoi, 1998. Ibid.

162 ^ Eriocheir sinensis.

163 ^ Platichthys flessus.

164 ^ J.H. Leach, Research Scientist, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources Lake Erie Fisheries Station, letter to James Carlton, Maritime Studies Program, William College – Mystic Seaport (May 18, 1994).

165 ^ John M. Casselman, Senior Scientist, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources Research, Science, and Technology Branch, letter to P. Furlong, Lake Superior Management Unit (December 9, 1994).

166 ^ The mean average age of international shipping over 100 gross registered tons is 15.8 years for bulkers and 17.8 years for tankers. The Chamber of Shipping, December 31, 1997 data at www.british-shipping.org (accessed July 1, 1999).

167 ^ I provide a more comprehensive survey of the literature in M. Eric Reeves, “Techniques for the Protection of the Great Lakes from Infection by Exotic Organisms in Ballast Water,” in Frank M. D’Itri, ed., Zebra Mussels and Aquatic Nuisance Species (Chelsea, MI: Ann Arbor Press, 1997) 283-299. The leading national scoping studies on ballast water technology are: (1) Canada: Pollutech Environmental Limited, A Review and Evaluation of Ballast Water Management and Treatment Options to Reduce the Potential for the Introduction of Non-Native Species to the Great Lakes, Technical Appendix B, Ballast Water Treatment, report prepared for the Canadian Coast Guard (Sarnia, ON: March 31, 1992). (2) United States: Marine Board, National Research Council, Stemming the Tide: Controlling Introductions of Nonindigenous Species by Ships’ Ballast Water (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996). (3) Australia: Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS), Ballast Water Treatment for the Removal of Marine Organisms, AQIS Ballast Water Research Series Report No. 1 (Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service, June 1993).

168 ^ Pollutech Environmental Limited, A Review and Evaluation of Ballast Water Management and Treatment Options to Reduce the Potential for the Introduction of Non-Native Species to the Great Lakes, Technical Appendix B, Ballast Water Treatment, report prepared for the Canadian Coast Guard (Sarnia, ON: March 31, 1992).

169 ^ Pollutech, ibid., p. 21, table 2.2.6.1. This estimate assumes a flow rate of 2,500 m³/hour and extra transit time due to exchange.

170 ^ Michael G. Parsons, “Flow-Through Ballast Water Exchange,” a background paper for the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME) Ad-Hoc Panel on Ballast Water Exchange, SNAME Annual Meeting, San Diego, California, 1998.

171 ^ Everett C. Hunt and Boris S. Butman, Marine Engineering and Economics Cost Analysis (Centreville, MD: Cornell Maritime Press, 1995), appendix C, page C-3, table 12-3, account number 918.

172 ^ Hunt and Butman, ibid., p. 1-6.

173 ^ Michael G. Parsons, Russell Moll, Thomas P. Mackey, and Rendall B. Farley, Great Lakes Ballast Demonstration Project -- Phase I. (Ann Arbor, MI: Cooperative Institute for Limnology and Ecosystem Research, University of Michigan, 1997), p. 69. Also, in personal communications since that time, Dr. Parsons has said that additional experience with the demonstration project would lead him to revise that estimate upward somewhat.

174 ^ Pollutech Environmental Limited, A Review and Evaluation of Ballast Water Management and Treatment Options to Reduce the Potential for the Introduction of Non-Native Species to the Great Lakes, Technical Appendix B, Ballast Water Treatment, report prepared for the Canadian Coast Guard (Sarnia, ON: March 31, 1992), p. 115, table 2.7.6.1.

175 ^ Estimate of 1992 US dollars present value cost, including both capital and operating costs, per 1,000 cubic meters in Pollutech, ibid., pp. 128-130, tables 2.8.6.1-2.8.6.3. One can obtain a slightly lower cost for filtering plus UV, compared to filtering alone, by combining a very coarse filter with a UV system. But this lowers the likely effectiveness of the UV system, and may also increase breakdowns.

176 ^ Estimate of 1992 US dollars present value cost, including both capital and operating costs, per 1,000 cubic meters in Pollutech, ibid., pp. 57-60, tables 2.5.1.6.1-2.5.1.6.4.

177 ^ Estimate of 1992 US dollars present value cost, including both capital and operating costs, per 1,000 cubic meters in Pollutech, ibid., pp. 71-73, tables 2.5.2.6.1-2.5.2.6.3.

178 ^ Larissa M. Lubomudrov., Russell A. Moll, and Michael G. Parsons, An Evaluation of the Feasibility and Efficacy of Biocide Application in Controlling the Release of Nonindigenous Aquatic Species from Ballast Water (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, November 1997), p. 90, table 10.1.

179 ^ Estimate of 1992 US dollars present value cost in Pollutech Environmental Limited, A Review and Evaluation of Ballast Water Management and Treatment Options to Reduce the Potential for the Introduction of Non-Native Species to the Great Lakes, Technical Appendix B, Ballast Water Treatment, report prepared for the Canadian Coast Guard (Sarnia, ON: March 31, 1992), p. 162.

180 ^ Estimate of 1992 US dollars present value cost in Pollutech, ibid., p. 163.

181 ^ Edward L. Mills, Joseph H. Leach, James T. Carlton, and Carol L. Secor, “Exotic Species in the Great Lakes: A History of Biotic Crises and Anthropogenic Introductions,” Journal of Great Lakes Research (1993), vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 1-54, 7-8, Table 3.

182 ^ See also the list of the thirteen most significant introductions in Mills, et al., ibid., pp. 1-54, 43.

183 ^ Mills, et al., ibid, pp. 1-54, 20.

184 ^ This was the sense of comments from one or more industry experts at the American Fisheries Society Symposia, “Private Agriculture Safeguards for Great Lakes Biological Integrity” (Dearborn, MI, August 29, 1996).

185 ^ Dr. George Spangler, comments at the American Fisheries Society Symposia, “Private Agriculture Safeguards for Great Lakes Biological Integrity,” Dearborn, Michigan, August 29, 1996.

186 ^ That sort of statistical study is of very real value, but only within limits. Scientists are trained to quantify. Few biologists want to appear at a conference without their bar and whisker graphs. But the quantifications, trends, and linear correlations they seek to draw out of those data sets are often vague or misleading (as they themselves often warn their audiences) because of the inability to control for historical change in the ecosystem, including the historic and non-repetitive perturbations of human activities as well as the chaotic and nonlinear changes in ecosystem interactions. Ecology, which might be thought of as the current history of paleontology, is very much what the paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould has called a “historical science,” in which “verification by repetition,” the stereotypical talisman of the scientific method, is inapplicable “because we are trying to account for uniqueness of detail that cannot, both by laws of probability and time’s arrow of irreversibility, occur together again.” Stephen Jay Gould, Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History (New York: W.W. Norton, 1989), p. 278. This point is far from being merely academic or philosophical. It plays a critical part in the politics of ecology. Whether the subject is aquaculture or global warming, there will always be an argument, based on a false image of science, that we need to wait for more “science” to prove the connection in quantitative terms.

187 ^ Rebecca Goldberg and Tracy Triplett, Murky Waters: Environmental Effects of Aquaculture in the US (New York: Environmental Defense Fund, October 1997), p. 22, Figure 1.3, p. 50.

188 ^ Goldberg and Triplett, supra, pp. 11, 52.

189 ^ National Science and Technology Council Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture (JSA), Draft National Aquaculture Development Plan of 1996 (Washington DC: JSA, 1996), § 4.4.5, p. 9. (This is still the most current version of this policy statement by JSA as of July 15, 1999.)

190 ^ LaDon Swann, A Basic Overview of Aquaculture, Illinois-Indiana Sea Grant Program Technical Bulletin Series #102 (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University, August 1992), p. 2.

191 ^ LaDon Swann, supra.

192 ^ Goldberg and Triplett, supra, p. 22.

193 ^ JSA, supra, § 2, p 3.

194 ^ LaDon Swann, supra., p. 3.

195 ^ Michigan State University, Water Impacts, vol. 16, No. 3 (Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Institute of Water Research, March 1995), p. 3.

196 ^ Water Impacts, supra.

197 ^ LaDon Swann, supra, p. 3.

198 ^ Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture, “US Private Aquaculture Production for 1985-1997,” at ag.ansc.edu (Washington, DC: JSA, February 18, 1999).

199 ^ Leroy J. Hushak, North Central Regional Aquaculture Industry Situation and Outlook Report, vol. 1 (Ames, IA: Iowa State University North Central Region Aquaculture Center, August 1993), p. 16.

200 ^ Wisconsin Sea Grant Advisory Services web sit on “Aquaculture” at www.seagrant.wisc.edu (October 27, 1998).

201 ^ M.J. Spatz, J.L. Anderson, and S. Jancart, Northeast Region Aquaculture Industry Situation and Outlook Report, Rhode Island Agriculture Experiment Station publication no. 3352 (Kingston, RI: Rhode Island Agriculture Experiment Station, 1996).

202 ^ Richard D. Moccia and David J. Bevan, Aquastats 95, ACE order no. 96-001 (Guelph, ON: University of Guelph, August 1996), available at www.aps.uoguelph.ca.

203 ^ Moccia and Bevan, ibid.

204 ^ LaDon Swann, A Basic Overview of Aquaculture, Illinois-Indiana Sea Grant Program technical bulletin series #102 (West Lafaette, IN: Purdue University, August 1992), p. 3.

205 ^ Personal interview of Dr. Don Garling, an aquaculture specialist and member of the Michigan Aquaculture Advisory Committee, at Michigan State University in Lansing, MI; and Swann, supra.

206 ^ Rebecca Goldberg and Tracy Triplett, Murky Waters: Environmental Effects of Aquaculture in the US (New York: Environmental Defense Fund, October 1997), p. 15.

207 ^ Goldberg and Triplett, ibid.

208 ^ Swann, ibid, p. 8.

209 ^ Joyce R. Newman and Niles R. Kevern, Production of Michigan Aquacultural Products, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station research report RR 526-1 (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station, April 1994), p. 7.

210 ^ Charles J. Chopak and Joyce R. Newman, Aquaculture: Status and Potential of Michigan Agriculture – Phase II, Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station special report no. 50 (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station, September 1992), p. 7; and Newman and Kevern, supra.

211 ^ APHIS, Overview of Aquaculture in the United States (Fort Collins, CO: USDA APHIS Centers for Epidemiology & Animal Health, October 1995), p. 16; and LaDon Swann, Diagnostic Services in Illinois and Indiana, Sea Grant #IL-IN-SG-FS-91-10 (West Lafaette, IN: Purdue University, undated), p. 1.

212 ^ Rebecca Goldberg and Tracy Triplett, Murky Waters: Environmental Effects of Aquaculture in the US (New York: Environmental Defense Fund, October 1997), p. 52. See also James E. Stewart, “Introductions as a Factor in Disease of Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates,” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (1991), vol. 48 (Supplement 1), pp.  110-117.

213 ^ JSA, Draft National Aquaculture Development Plan of 1996 (Washington DC: National Science and Technology Council Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture, 1996), § 4.4.6, p. 9. (This is still the most current version of this policy statement by JSA as of July 15, 1999.)

214 ^ Terry L. Medley, APHIS Aquaculture Industry Report (Riverdale, MD: Animal and Planet Health Inspection Service Legislative and Public Affairs, July 1996), p. 1; and Draft National Aquaculture Development Plan of 1996, supra, § 4.4.6, p. 10.

215 ^ Presentations at the Michigan Department of Agriculture Aquaculture Advisory Committee, Lansing, MI, November 10, 1998.

216 ^ Great Lakes Fish Disease Control Policy and Model Program, Great Lakes Fishery Commission Special Publication 93-1 (Ann Arbor, MI: Great Lakes Fishery Commission, January 1993).

217 ^ Michigan Compiled Laws, MCL § 286.877(c).

218 ^ Denise Yockey, State Agriculture Director Announces Monitoring Strategy for Whirling Disease in Fish, MDA news release (Lansing, MI: MDA Marketing and Communications Division, August 25, 1998); MDA, Reportable Animal Disease List, MDA public advisory, apparently annual (Lansing MI: MDA Animal Industry Division, August 1998).

219 ^ Edward L. Mills, Joseph H. Leach, James T. Carlton, and Carol L. Secor, “Exotic Species in the Great Lakes: A History of Biotic Crises and Anthropogenic Introductions,” Journal of Great Lakes Research (1993), vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 1-54, 20.

220 ^ See the list of pathogens around the world in APHIS, Overview of Aquaculture in the United States (Fort Collins, CO: APHIS Centers for Epidemiology & Animal Health, October 1995), pp.  14-15, table 7.

221 ^ See Joyce R. Newman and Niles R. Kevern, Production of Michigan Aquacultural Products, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station research report RR 526-1 (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station, April 1994), p. 10.

222 ^ From the Victorian Fisheries Institute web site at www.fishnet.au (accessed February 18, 1999).

223 ^ Rebecca Goldberg and Tracy Triplett, Murky Waters: Environmental Effects of Aquaculture in the US (New York: Environmental Defense Fund, October 1997), p. 14.

224 ^ Goldberg and Triplett, ibid., pp. 53-55.

225 ^ Kjetil Hindar, Nils Ryman, and Fred Utter, “Genetic Effects of Aquaculture on Natural Fish Populations,” Aquaculture, vol. 98 (1991), pp. 259-261. See also R.W. Doyle, N.L. Shackel, Z. Basiao, S. Uraiwan, T. Matricia, and A.J. Tolbot, “Selective Diversification of Aquaculture Stocks: A Proposal for Economically Sustainable Genetic Conservation,” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (1991), vol. 48 (Supplement 1)., pp. 148-154; Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force, ibid., p. 10. On the mixed state of affairs in 1991, see also Paul J. Wingate, “US State’s View and Regulations on Fish Introductions,” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (1991), vol. 48 (Supplement 1), pp. 167-170.

226 ^ Devin M. Bartley and Eric M. Hallerman, “A Global Perspective on the Utilization of Genetically Modified Organisms in Aquaculture and Fisheries,” Aquaculture, vol. 137 (1995), pp. 1-7, 4.

227 ^ James W. Fetzner, Robert J. Sheehan, and Lisa W. Seeb, “Genetic Implications of Broodstock Selection for Crayfish Aquaculture in the Midwestern United States,” Aquaculture, vol. 154 (1997), pp. 39-55, 50.

228 ^ See FAO, Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (Rome: UN FAO, 1995), § 9.3.1.

229 ^ Ismail Serageldin, quoted in DFO, Aquatic Biotechnology, Department of Fisheries and Ocean discussion document attached to the Canadian Biotechnology Strategy (Ottawa: Industry Canada, Bio-Industry Branch, August 6, 1998), § 3.

230 ^ JSA, Draft National Aquaculture Development Plan of 1996 (Washington DC: National Science and Technology Council Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture, 1996), § 4.4.5, p. 9. (This is still the most current version of this policy statement by JSA as of July 15, 1999.)

231 ^ DFO, Aquatic Biotechnology, Department of Fisheries and Ocean discussion document attached to the Canadian Biotechnology Strategy (Ottawa: Industry Canada, Bio-Industry Branch, August 6, 1998), § 3.

232 ^ DFO, ibid, § 5a.

233 ^ E.g., some of the more recent are Thomas J. LoVullo and Jay R. Stauffer, Jr., “The Retail Bait Industry in Pennsylvania,” Matthew K. Litvak and Nicholas E. Mandrak, “Ecology of Freshwater Use in Canada and the United States,” Fisheries, vol. 18, no. 12 (December 1993), pp. 6-13; and Herbert R. Ludwig, Jr., and Jay A. Leitch, “Interbasin Transfer of Aquatic Biota via Anglers’ Bait Buckets,” Fisheries, vol. 21, no. 7 (1996), pp. 14-18.

234 ^ Brief from Dr. Douglas Jensen, Minnesota Sea Grant, and Dr. Ron Kinnunen, Michigan Sea Grant, to the Great Lakes Commission Panel on Aquatic Nuisance Species, Ann Arbor, Michigan, January 28, 1999. Their study seeks to apply the “HACCP” system, developed in food safety control, to the management of exotics in bait handling and aquaculture. “HACCP” stands for “hazardous analysis of critical control points,” i.e., strategic analysis of targets of opportunity for effective control of a system, by either the government or the industry. Their study is near the end of the first of two years of scheduled work.

235 ^ Matthew K. Litvak and Nicholas E. Mandrak, “Ecology of Freshwater Use in Canada and the United States,” Fisheries, vol. 18, no. 12 (December 1993), pp. 6-13, 6. One billion dollars is a very round figure, based on 1991 estimates that were rather rough at that time, and is offered here just to establish an order of magnitude.

236 ^ LaDon Swann, A Basic Overview of Aquaculture, Illinois-Indiana Sea Grant Program technical bulletin series #102 (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University, August 1992), p. 6.

237 ^ Litvak and Mandrak, supra, pp. 6-13, 12, also citing L.A. Neilson, “The Bait-Fish Industry in Ohio and West Virginia, with Special Reference to the Ohio Sport Fishery,” North American Journal of Fisheries Management, vol. 2 (1982), pp. 232-238.

238 ^ Litvak and Mandrak, ibid.

239 ^ Brief from Dr. Douglas Jensen, Minnesota Sea Grant, and Dr. Ron Kinnunen, Michigan Sea Grant, to the Great Lakes Commission Panel on Aquatic Nuisance Species, Ann Arbor, Michigan, January 28, 1999.

240 ^ Litvak and Nicholas E. Mandrak, “Ecology of Freshwater Use in Canada and the United States,” Fisheries, vol. 18, no. 12 (December 1993), pp. 6-13, 7, citing W.R. Coutenay, Jr., and J.N. Taylor, presentation to the Symposium on Stock Enhancement in the Management of Freshwater Fish (Rome: European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission, 1984).

241 ^ James E. Stewart, “Introductions as a Factor in Disease of Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates,” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (1991), vol. 48 (Supplement 1), pp.  110-117.

242 ^ Litvak and Nicholas E. Mandrak, “Ecology of Freshwater Use in Canada and the United States,” Fisheries, vol. 18, no. 12 (December 1993), pp. 6-13, 9, 10, Table 2.

243 ^ Herbert R. Ludwig, Jr., and Jay A. Leitch, “Interbasin Transfer of Aquatic Biota via Anglers’ Bait Buckets,” Fisheries, vol. 21, no. 7 (1996), pp. 14-18, 14 (abstract).

244 ^ Mike Conlin, Chief, Division of Fisheries, Illinois DNR, letter (February 9, 1999). Emphasis in original.

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