Islam, the Mediterranean and the Rise of Capitalism
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i Werner Sombart, Der moderne Kapitalismus…Bd. 1 Die historischen Grundlagen des modernen Kapitalismus, 2nd rev. ed. (Munich and Leipzig, 1916) p.865. ii Jakob Strieder, Studien zur Geschichte kapitalistischer Organisationsformen: Monopole, Kartelle und Aktiengesellschaften im Mittelalter u. zu Beginn der Neuzeit (Munich and Leipzig, 1914). iii Jacob Strieder, ‘Origin and evolution of early European capitalism’, J. of Economic and Business History 2 (1929) p.1-19, at 3. iv Strieder, ‘Origin’, p.5. v Earl J. Hamilton, ‘American treasure and the rise of capitalism (1500-1700)’, Economica 9, no. 27 (1929) p.338-57, at 344. vi Hamilton, ‘American treasure’, p.347. vii Sartre, Critique de la Raison dialectique, t.1 (Paris, 1960), p.235-45, using the work of Braudel and Hamilton. viii Hamilton, ‘American treasure’, p.356 ix A. Da Veiga-Simoes, ‘La Flandre, le Portugal, et les debuts du capitalisme moderne’, Revue économique internationale 1932, p.249-98, at 291. x Vega-Simoes, ‘Debuts’, p.295. xi To a ‘northern, Atlantic, international capitalism’, as Braudel called it, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, 2 vols., tr. Siân Reynolds (Fontana, 1975) vol. 1, p.510; 228; the phrase is from p.640. xii Manuel Nunes Dias, O Capitalismo monárquico Português (1415-1549), 2 vols. (Coimbra, 1963), vol. 1, p.37. xiii Nunes Dias, Capitalismo monárquico, vol. 1, p.57ff., esp. 65. xiv Nunes Dias, Capitalismo monárquico, vol.1, p.148-98. xv Nunes Dias, Capitalismo monárquico, vol.1, p.211-2, 218-25; vol. 2, p.260-7. xvi Giorgio Cracco, Società e stato nel medioevo veneziano (secoli xii-xiv) (Florence, 1967), p.201f. xvii Subhi Y. Labib, ‘Capitalism in medieval Islam’, JESHO 29 (1969) 79-96, at 80. xviii Marx, Capital, vol. 2, p.136 (emphasis mine) xix Marx, Capital, vol. 3, p.406 xx Marx, Capital, vol. 3, p.403 xxi Marx, Capital, vol. 3, p.395 (emphasis mine). xxii Dobb, ‘A reply’ in Paul Sweezy et al., The Transition from Feudalism toCapitalism (NLB, 1976) p. 62. xxiii Ellen Meiksins Wood, The Pristine Culture of Capitalism (London and New York, 1991) p.1. xxiv Elizabeth Fox-Genovese and Eugene D. Genovese, Fruits of Merchant Capital: Slavery and Bourgeois Property in the Rise and Expansion of Capitalism (Oxford, 1983) p.7. xxv Dobb, Studies in the Development of Capitalism (London, 1963) ** xxvi R. H. Tawney, ‘A history of capitalism’, EcHR, ser. 2, 2 (1950) 307-16, at at 311. xxvii Georges Lefebvre, ‘Some observations’, in Sweezy et al., The Transition, p.124ff. xxviii Lefebvre, p.125. xxix Lefebvre, p.126. xxx One of the best accounts is William G. Roy, Socializing Capital: The Rise of the Large Industrial Corporation in America (Princeton, 1997). xxxi Paddy Ireland, ‘Capitalism without the capitalist: the joint stock company share and the emergence of the modern doctrine of separate corporate personality’, Legal History 17 (1996) p.40-72, id., ‘Company law and the myth of shareholder ownership’, The Modern Law Review 62 (1999) 32-57, xxxii Ireland, ‘Capitalism’, p.53 ff. xxxiii Ireland, ‘Company law’, p.41. xxxiv Ireland, ‘Capitalism’, p.60. xxxv Ireland, ‘Capitalism’, p.49. xxxvi Ireland, ‘Capitalism’, p.44, citing Watson, A Treatise of the Law of Partnership, 2nd ed., 1807. xxxvii E.g., Stefano Angeli, Proprietari, commercianti e filandieri a Milano nel primo Ottocento: il mercato delle sete (Milan, 1982) p.107f., on the organisation of the business firms that controlled the silk industry. xxxviii T. M. Devine, The Tobacco Lords: A Study of the Tobacco Merchants of Glasgow and their Trading Activities c.1740-90 (Edinburgh, 1975) p.74 xxxix Devine, Tobacco Lords, p.92. xl Devine, Tobacco Lords, p.79. xli The description ‘great Augsburg (etc.)’ is from H. R. Trevor-Roper, ‘The Reformation and economic change’, in M. J. Kitch, ed., Capitalism and the Reformation (Longman, 1967) p.34. xlii Raymond de Roover, Money, Banking and Credit in Mediaeval Bruges: Italian Merchant-Bankers, Lombards and Money-Changers. A Study in the Origins of Banking (orig. 1948; repr. Routlegde, 1999), Edwin S. Hunt and James M. Murray, A History of Business in Medieval Europe 1200-1550 (Cambridge, 1999) xliii. A. Sapori, Le marchand italien au moyen age: conférences et bibliographie (Paris, 1952) p. xxxvi. xliv Gino Luzzatto, Storia economica di Venezia dall’ XI al XVI secolo (Venice, 1961) p.93. xlv Gino Luzzatto, ‘Capitalismo coloniale nel Trecento’, in Studi di storia economica veneziana (Padua, 1954) p.117-23. xlvi Luzzatto, Storia economica, p.72, referring to the ‘supremazia che il capitale esercita a Venezia su tutte le attività economica…’. xlvii Jacques Heers, Gênes au XVe siècle: activité économique et problèmes sociaux (Paris, 1961) p.201. xlviii Peter Spufford, Money and its Use in Medieval Europe (Cambridge, 1988) p.253. xlix R. S. Lopez and I.W. Raymond, Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Ilustrative Documents (New York, ) p.174ff. l Luzzatto, Storia economica, p.84. li An argument first advanced by Lopez, ‘Alle origini del capitalismo genovese’, in Carlo Cipolla, ed., Storia dell’economia italiana: saggi di storia economica, vol. 1 (Einaudi, 1959) p.285-312. lii Cracco, Società e stato, p.16, n.1. liii Hilmar C. Krueger, ‘Genoese merchants, their associations and investments, 1155 to 1230’, in Studi in onore di Amintore Fanfani, I: Antichità e alto medioevo (Milan, 1962) 413-26, at 42, about the 12th century. liv Cracco, Società e stato; Luzzatto, Studi, p.73-9. lv Lopez, ‘Les méthodes commerciales des marchands occidentaux…’, in Sociétés et compagnies de commerce en Orient et dans l’Océan indien: Actes du huitième colloque int. d’histoire maritime (Paris, 1970) p.345. lvi A. L. Udovitch, ‘Commercial techniques in early medieval Islamic trade’, in D. S. Richards, ed., Islam and the Trade of Asia: A Colloquium (Oxford, 1970) 37-62, at 49. lvii Udovitch, ‘Commercial techniques’, p.41-2. lviii Abraham L. Udovitch, Partnership and Profit in Medieval Islam (Princeton, 1970) p.81, ‘augmentation of the capital investment’. lix Udovitch, Partnership, p.205-6. lx Udovitch, Partnership, p.175. lxi Udovitch, Partnership, p.82. lxii Udovitch, ‘Commercial techniques’, p.55. lxiii Abu Ishák al-Fárisi al-Iṣṭakhrī, Viae regnorum etc., ed., M.J. de Goeje (BGA i) (Leiden, 1870) p.138, repeated by Ibn Ḥauqal, Opus geographicum auctore Ibn Hauḳal, etc., ed. J. H. Kramers (Leiden, 1938) ii.290 (henceforth Kitāb). lxiv H. Ritter, ‘Ein arabisches Handbuch der Handelswissenschaft’, Der Islam 7 (1917) p.1-91, for extracts in German. lxv Ritter, ‘Handbuch’, p.58. lxvi Ibn Khaldūn, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, tr. Franz Rosenthal, 3 vols (Princeton, 1958), vol. 2, p.280, ***; lxvii Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddimah, vol. 2, p.336. lxviii Maurice Lombard, L’Islam dans sa première grandeur (viiie-xie siècle) (Paris, 1971), esp. p.7-17. lxix Al-Balādhuri, The Origins of the Islamic State…(Kitāb futūḥ al-buldān), vol. 2, tr. F. C. Murgotten (New York, 1924), p.223. lxx See Derryl N. Maclean, Religion and Society in Arab Sind (Leiden, etc., 1989) p.67, referring to the ‘two-pronged Arab expansion’, and p.68, to an ‘Arab trade empire’. lxxi Al-Ṭabarī, Ṭa’rīkh al-rusul wa’l-mulūk, 1.2384. lxxii Al-Jakûbî [Ya‘ḳūbī], Kitâb al-boldân (BGA vii) p.358, tr. Gaston Wiet, Les Pays (Cairo, 1937) p.223. lxxiii Ibn Ḥauqal, Kitāb, i.99. lxxiv Pierre-Amédée Jaubert, La Géographie d’Édrisi traduite de l’Arabe…2 vols. in one (repr. Philo Press, Amsterdam, 1975) p.27; Kitāb nuzhat al-mushtāḳ fi’khtirāḳ al-āfāḳ, eds., R. Dozy and M.J. de Goeje (Leiden, 1866) p.80. lxxv Braudel, Mediterranean, vol.1, p.467. lxxvi The classic reference is Maurice Lombard, ‘Les bases monétaires d’une suprématie économique: l’or musulman du VIIe au XIe siècle’, Annales 2 (1947) 143-60. lxxvii Andrew M. Watson, ‘Back to gold – and silver’, EcHR, ser. 2, 20 (1967) 1-34. lxxviii A. M. Watson, Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World (Cambridge, 1983). lxxix See Al-Muqaddasi, The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions: A Translation of “Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Ma‘rifat al-Aqalim”, tr. Basil Anthony Collins (Reading, 1994), with detailed descriptions of each locality. lxxx See Barbara Harriss-White, A Political Economy of Agricultural Markets in South India (New Delhi, etc., 1996) chapters 5-6 for the first proper discussion of these. lxxxi Al-Muqaddasi, Best Divisions, p.407, referring to ‘substantial merchants’; ‘I heard some of them say that every year, between dates and costly Indian merchandise, about one hundred thousand [camel] loads are transported’, p.412. lxxxii [Narshakhī] Richard N. Frye, The History of Bukhara, Translated from a Persian Abridgement of the Arabic Original…(Cambridge, Mass., 1954) p.18, ‘The people of Baikand were all merchants. They traded with Chīn and the sea and became very wealthy’; also Ibn Khordādhbeh, Kitāb al-masālik wa'l-mamālik, ed., M.J. de Goeje (BGA vi) (Leiden, 1889) p.19, madīnat al-tujjār. lxxxiii Ibn Ḥauqal, Kitāb, ii.342; Configuration de la terre (Kitāb ṣūrat al-‘arḍ), tr. J. H. Kramers and G. Wiet, 2 vols. (Beirut and Paris, 1964), vol. 2, p.418. lxxxiv Al-Muqaddasi, Best Divisions, p.378. lxxxv Al-Iṣṭakhrī, BGA i.127, 139; cf. A. D. Mordtmann, Das Buch der Länder von Schech Ebu Ishak el Farsi el Isztachri (Schriften der Akademie von Hamburg, 1/2) (Hamburg, 1845) p.69ff. (generally unreliable). ‘Omān may have been even wealthier, cf. the late tenth-cent. Persian geographer in V. Minorsky, ed., Ḥudūd al-‘Ālam: The Regions of the World. A Persian Geography 372 A.H.-982 A.D. (London, 1937), p.148: ‘Merchants are numerous in it. It is the emporium (bārkadha) of the whole world. There is no town in the world where the merchants are wealthier (tuvangartar) than here’. lxxxvi The Chachnama, an Ancient History of Sind, tr. Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg (Karachi, 1900), an early 13th-c. Persian translation of a 9th-c. Arabic narrative of the conquest of Sind, which says, ‘The people of Debal [Daybul] were mostly merchants’ (about the year 632); al-Iṣṭakhrī, BGA i.**, majma‘ al-tujjār; Minorsky, ed., Ḥudūd al-‘Ālam, p.123, ‘the abode (jāygāh) of the merchants’; Ibn Ḥauqal, Kitāb, ii.223, French tr., vol.2, p.316. lxxxvii Al-Muqaddasi, Best Divisions, p.420. lxxxviii Minorsky, ed., Hudūd al-‘Ālam, p.151. lxxxix See Norman A. Stillman, ‘The eleventh century merchant house of Ibn ‘Awkal (A Geniza study)’, JESHO 16 (1973) 15-88, at 28ff. xc Jaubert, Géographie d’Édrisi, p.257 (port), 259 (merchants); Kitāb, eds. Dozy and de Goeje, p.107, 109, tijār mayāsīr nubalā’. xci Braudel, Mediterranean, vol. 1, p.118. xcii Jaubert, Géographie d’Édrisi, 2, p.44. xciii S. M. Stern, ‘Rāmisht of Sīrāf, a merchant millionaire of the twelfth century’, JRAS 1967, p.10, citing the anonymous 12th-c. abridger of Ibn Ḥauqal. xciv Ibn Ḥauqal, Configuration de la terre (n. 83), vol.2, p.436; Kitāb, ii.450; with a fascinating ref. to the testimony of the merchants themselves, *** xcv A.L.Udovitch, ‘International trade and the medieval Egyptian countryside’, in Alan K. Bowman and Eugene Rogan, eds., Agriculture in Egypt from Pharaonic to Modern Times (Oxford, 1999) p.267-85, at 270f. xcvi Ernest Mandel, Marxist Economic Theory, tr. Brian Pearce, 2 vols. (New York and London, 1968), vol. 1, p.103. xcvii Luzzatto, Storia economica, p.29, Cracco, Società e stato, p.56-7. xcviii Cracco, Società, p.58. c Ibn Khaldoun, Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique septentrionale tr. De Slane, rev. ed. Paul Casanova, 4 vols. (repr. Paris, 1969), vol.2, p.24. ci Robert-Henri Bautier, The Economic Development of Medieval Europe (London, 1971) p.100. cii Jaubert, Géographie d’Édrisi, p.257. ciii See Roberto Lopez, ‘I Genovesi in Africa Occidentale nel medio evo’, in Studi sull' economia genovese nel medio evo (Turin, 1936) p.1-61, esp. 34ff. civ Watson, ‘Back to gold’, p.14. cv Watson, ibid., my emphasis. cvi Lopez, ‘Genovesi’, p.48. cvii Watson, ‘Back to gold’, p.16, 19, also Heers, Gênes au XVe siècle, p.67-8, 477-9. cviii Heers, Gênes, p.480f., adding the importance to Portugal of Morocco's grain markets. cix This is argued by Anna Unali, Ceuta 1415. Alle origini dell'espansione europea in Africa (Rome, 2000) p.209 ff. cx Dias, Capitalismo monárquico, p.168. cxi The best analysis of the evolution of Portuguese policy is Luís Filipe Thomaz, ‘Le Portugal et l'Afrique au XVe siècle: les debuts de l'expansion’, in Arquivos do Centro Cultural Português 26 (1989) p.161-256, arguing that the Atlantic strategy emerged with considerable hesitation. Note Zurara’s comment in the Crónica da Guiné, ‘merchants only to sail to places where they know the profit is sure’, cited Thomaz, p.223. cxii Marx, Capital, vol. 3, p.921, ‘The national character of the Mercantile System is therefore not a mere slogan in the mouths of its spokesmen. Under the pretext of being concerned only with the wealth of the nation and the sources of assistance for the state, they actually declare that the interests of the capitalist class, and enrichment in general, are the final purpose of the state…At the same time, however, they show their awareness that the development of the interests of capital and the capitalist class, of capitalist production, has become the basis of a nation's power and predominance in modern society’ – a remarkable characterisation of Mercantilism. cxiii Niels Steensgaard, The Asian Trade Revolution of the Seventeenth Century: The East India Companies and the Decline of the Caravan Trade (Chicago and London, 1974) p.136-41, arguing that the English, by contrast, were interested in 'quick returns'. cxiv Steensgaard, Asian Trade Revolution, p.406. cxv E.g., Ralph Davis, Aleppo and Devonshire Square: English Traders in the Levant in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1967). cxvi Om Prakash, The Dutch East India Company and the Economy of Bengal, 1630-1720 (Princeton, 1985). cxvii J. G. Van Dillen, ‘Amsterdam als wereldmarkt der edele metalen in de 17de en 18de eeuw’, De Economist 1923, p.538-50, 583-98. cxviii Marx, Capital, vol. 3, p.446-7. cxix Mandel, Marxist Economic Theory, vol. 1, p.112. cxx The distinction derives from Sombart, ‘Die Hausindustrie in Deutschland’, Archiv f. Gesetzgebung u. Statistik 4 (1891) p.103-56, the best discussion of 'domestic industry' akin to Marx's own understanding (e.g., Capital, vol. 1, p.462-3, vol. 2, p.318-9). cxxi See Benoy Chowdhury, Growth of Commercial Agriculture in Bengal (1757-1900) (Calcutta, 1964). cxxii Hameeda Hossain, The Company Weavers of Bengal: The East India Company and the Organisation of Textile Production in Bengal, 1750-1813 (Delhi, 1988). cxxiii H. W. Van Santen, De Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie in Gujarat en Hindustan, 1620-42 ( ), ch. 4. cxxiv John U. Neff, ‘Dominance of the trader in the English coal industry in the seventeenth century’, J. of Economic and Business History 1 (1929) p.422 ff. cxxv Carlo Poni, ‘All'origine del sistema di fabbrica: tecnologia organizzazione produttiva dei mulini da seta nell'Italia settentrionale (sec. xvii-xviii)’, Rivista storica italiana 88 (1976) p.444-97, esp. p.467-71 on the leadership of the grandi mercanti. cxxvi Strieder, Studien (n. 2); Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism 15th-18th Century: Vol. 2 The Wheels of Commerce (London, 2002) p.321-5. cxxvii John H. Munro, ‘Precious metals and the origins of the price revolution reconsidered’, in Clara Eugenia Núñez, ed., Monetary History in Global Perspective 1500-1808 (Seville, 1998) p.35-50, underlining the role of the 'German merchant-financiers'. cxxviii Laird W. Bergad, Cuban Rural Society in the Nineteenth Century. The Social and Economic History of Monoculture in Matanzas (Princeton, 1990), esp. p.132ff., 170ff. 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