Masaryk university faculty of education
Features of Political speech 4. Historical and political references
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- 5. Jonathan Winthrop’s “City upon a Hill”
- 6. American Exceptionalism
- 7.Valiant Leader
- 8.Rhetoric
Features of Political speech4. Historical and political referencesMost politicians borrow propositions, actual phrases or ideas from speeches of previous politicians or important historical figures in order to show their concordance (usually) rather than disagreement with these statements. It can also be a sign of allegiance to the values and ideological principles held by that person or simply an indication of honor and respect. Below are some of the most frequent and notable references appearing in speeches of American presidents. This thesis is not concerned with ideological aspects of the speeches but rather their linguistic representation. 5. Jonathan Winthrop’s “City upon a Hill”Seeking religious freedom and refuge from the Anglican Church, the Puritans from England embarked on a voyage to the New World, with the intention of establishing a colony in Massachusetts. As their leader and later governor, Jonathan Winthrop, on board the Arbella, gave a famous sermon called “Model of Christian Charity”. In this sermon, Winthrop uttered the legendary words about a “city upon a hill”, which originated in the Bible in Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount. With this phrase, Winthrop encouraged his followers to become a model colony, a city upon a hill, for all eyes to see and be inspired by. For we must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill. The eyes of all people are upon us. So that if we shall deal falsely with our God in this work we have undertaken, and so cause Him to withdraw His present help from us, we shall be made a story and a by-word through the world. Jonathan Winthrop, “A Model of Christian Charity” This sermon became the impetus for a growing and a widespread belief that America is God blessed, with great power but also great responsibility towards the world. This belief that Americans and their deeds are visible to all people, and thus that America acts as beacon of light for the world, took root and grew into the concept of American exceptionalism. (Winthrop) 6. American ExceptionalismAs the title itself suggests, the notion of American exceptionalism stems from the idea or belief that America is many aspects different than other countries. Though it does not necessarily imply that the United States is superior to other nations, combined with America’s revolutionary beginnings, the notion of city upon a hill and advanced democracy, the term exceptional began to mean supreme. Both American exceptionalism and the city upon a hill notion have not only been pervasive within the political realm, but continue to live on through visual representations, such as on the American dollar (Image 1), which depicts an image of a pyramid, the eye of providence, and a Latin phrase “Annuit Coeptis,” which translates into “He [God] favors our undertaking.” Image 1
Such symbols point back to the city upon a hill (the pyramid is a manmade hill), God watching (the eye) and Christian faith (In God we trust). Another example is the American tradition of the “pledge of allegiance”, which is recited every weekday by all American school children, strengthening the faith in American exceptionalism. Rhetorically, these concepts are pervasive in practically all political speeches, usually referring the United States as: a leader in democracy, supreme military power, protector of the weak, etc. Finally, the effect of American exceptionalism is perhaps most visible in crisis speeches, where these beliefs are used as reason for going to war. (Lipset) 7.Valiant LeaderClosely tied with the idea of a City upon a Hill is the idea of a valiant leader, perhaps stemming from the Jonathan Winthrop himself or possibly other, commanding Americans. Critical and brave decisions made by exemplary Christian figures in American history keep on living through speeches of contemporary politicians, who try to compare themselves, and mainly their actions, to such figures. Geis argues that the language of American presidents “regularly resorts to myth-evoking language in their efforts to persuade the citizenry of the merits of themselves as presidents and their policies and programs.” (p. 39) Example A below portrays John F. Kennedy as a sympathetic, Cuban-loving supporter of freedom and justice, using the words of an empathetic leader. In example B (from the same speech), he cautions about casualties, costs, sacrifice and self-discipline, using the words of rather an emphatic leader and possibly hiding their real meaning, which is that America planned to bomb Cuba if the Soviets did not back off.
John Fitzerald Kennedy, Cuban Missile Crisis Speech Finally, when the speaker associates himself with God’s work, or when he asserts his courage and decision making ability, he is using the ‘valiant leader’ method. Its goal is achieving the feeling of security and admiration on the side of the audience, even awe such that might have been experienced when listening to a speech by Lincoln or Washington. 8.RhetoricAristotle defined rhetoric as an art of speaking, applicable to all human communication, without distinction of topic or purpose. (Cook) Over time, rhetoric became associated with politics, government and persuading people. Interestingly, another Greek philosopher, Plato, suspected rhetoric was rather an art of manipulation than of innocent communication. Whether or not rhetoric involves dishonest manipulation is a topic for a different thesis, but it can be agreed that rhetoric as such is not only an inherent part of presidential speeches, but is associated with a high degree of linguistic refinement, skillfulness and even enlightenment. And it is this degree of linguistic complexity, often perceived as declining, which seems to be the focus of attention these days. Though there cannot be a single or simple justification, Lim has shown in his extensive research that “American presidential rhetoric in the last century has become comprehensively more anti-intellectual, abstract, assertive, democratic, and conversational” (p. 348) In this thesis, similar research on a simpler scale will be conducted with all the corpus speeches and the linguistic and rhetorical levels will be compared. As Benjamin notes, "the function of the President of the United States when Congress has been called together for a declaration of war address is not unlike that of a high priest in a ritual. His purpose is not necessarily to persuade, or deliberate, or to inform, but primarily to intone the words required in a democratic society faced with the necessity of waging war." (p. 73) It is that unique function of presidential rhetoric as a part of a performative speech act that provides the focus of this essay.
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