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3.12 Televised Debates

The first TV debate, which helped eliminate the issue of Kennedy’s youth and inexperience from the campaign “in one stroke” was focused on domestic issues (Schlesinger, Thousand Days 69). In his opening statement, Kennedy stressed the importance of supporting education and science in order to keep up with the Soviet Union. He said that the direction in which the world would move depends much on “the kind of society” the Americans will build (“Senator John F. Kennedy and Vice President Richard M. Nixon First Joint Radio-Television Broadcast”). Kennedy then moved to the topic of the civil rights and talked according to the memorandum prepared for him by Wofford.⁴⁰ Kennedy claimed that he would not be “satisfied until every American enjoys his full constitutional rights. If a Negro baby is born ... he has about one-half as much chance to get through high school as a white baby. He has one-third as much chance to get through college as a white student. He has about a third as much chance to be a professional man, and about half as much chance to own a house. He has about four times as much chance that he will be out of work in his life as the white baby” (ibid.) Kennedy addressed the American people also in his summary, unlike Nixon who used both, the opening as well as the closing statement, “to draw contrasts between himself and Kennedy” (Dallek, Unfinished Life 285).

Although the main topics of the next three debates were US involvement in China and American relations with Cuba, the candidates were asked to “sum up their intentions in the field of civil rights” (“Senator John F. Kennedy and Vice President Richard M. Nixon Second Joint Radio-Television Broadcast”). Kennedy emphasized the importance of “equality in education in schools” (ibid.) He also promised to “establish a moral tone and moral leadership” to solve the question of equality in education in all sections of the United States if he became the president (ibid.). Kennedy promised to end the discrimination in federal housing “by a stroke of the President’s pen” (ibid.).

Nixon, who improved his image in the subsequent three debates, said that Federal Government should assist districts which would like to integrate their schools. Nixon stated that it was necessary to “do something about” segregation but he did not say what exactly should be done and how it should be reached (ibid.). Nixon closed his reply by accusing Kennedy of not speaking about civil rights during his visits to the South. Regarding civil rights issues discussions in the TV debates, Kennedy was certainly more successful than Nixon because he expressed his awareness of the fact that African Americans still could not exercise their full constitutional rights and he also implied his intention to deal with this problem whereas Nixon’s comments were very general and did not suggest Nixon’s particular interest in the topic.

3.13 National Conference on Constitutional Rights and American Freedom

Wofford suggested organizing a conference with the aim to bring together senior Democrats and civil rights leaders in order to discuss the implementation of party platforms into government policy. The National Conference on Constitutional Rights and American Freedom took place in Park-Sheraton Hotel in New York on October 12, 1960 (Bryant 176).

It was agreed that the country needed a president who would not only speak about civil rights issues but who would also “act on them ahead of time” (ibid.). Kennedy delivered his speech, in which he spoke about executive leadership and executive action. He emphasized that it was not only about legislation and he assured that the new Democratic administration would “press for executive leadership and action” (Kennedy, “Speech of Senator John F. Kennedy, National Conference” par.7). He briefly mentioned the necessity “to create the conditions in which compliance with the constitutional requirements of school desegregation takes place” (ibid. par.9). The participants of the Conference agreed that it was necessary to press for the fulfillment of commitments regarding civil rights set in the Democratic platform. Johnson did not attend this conference. He stated: “...the administration of Jack Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson will be an administration which will protect the constitutional rights of all Americans” (Bryant 176). He did not express any particular support to civil rights issues, but he implied that he would denounce any policy that would not be in compliance with the Constitution.

3.14 Election Results

In 1960, seven million more people voted in the election in comparison to previous presidential election. Almost sixty-four percent of eligible voters cast ballots. Kennedy received 303 electoral votes compared to Nixon who received 219 electoral votes. However, Kennedy won the election by the smallest popular-vote margin in the twentieth century. He earned 49.7 percent compared to Nixon’s 49.6 percent (O’Brien 495).

Kennedy’s personal attractiveness, campaign style and the phone call to Coretta King, as well as the first televised debate contributed to his victory. Kennedy won the crucial states such as Michigan, New Jersey, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and New York due to the African American vote. Nixon’s campaign was missing “black political temper” (Brauer 51). Although civil rights were not a crucial part of Kennedy’s campaign, he promised the African Americans “a wide range of Presidential action on their behalf” (Stern, Calculating Visions 39).

Religion played an important role in the South, however, Southern states were traditionally mostly Democratic which helped to reduce the importance of religion. Among the reasons which contributed to Kennedy’s victory might also be “the faltering economy in the election year, anxiety about the nation’s apparently diminished capacity to meet the Soviet threat...” (Dallek, Unfinished Life 295). Johnson on the ticket proved to be quite important because it is believed that he helped Kennedy win some Southern states (Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, South Carolina and Texas) (ibid.).

During the year of 1960, international tensions were escalating and therefore the national safety and the technical progress were key issues in the presidential election. Both candidates, Nixon and Kennedy, were occupied with the cold war and none of them really focused on civil rights in their campaign. Media did not press either candidate on the issues of race or civil rights either. It was very effective for Kennedy and Johnson to “divide their campaign along the Mason-Dixon Line.”⁴¹ Kennedy rarely visited the South during his campaign and if he did, he usually managed to avoid the topic of civil rights. Johnson was campaigning in the South. He traveled in his “LBJ Victory Special locomotive” (Bryant 169).

Although Kennedy devoted some speeches to civil rights, he still used rather general expressions. In his civil rights statements he often spoke about protecting constitutional rights but he rarely addressed a specific issue directly. He never explicitly criticized Southern officials for failing to comply with the Constitution, for denying the African Americans their rights. In his statements Kennedy often criticized Eisenhower for failing in many categories, including civil rights. Kennedy particularly criticized the President for “allowing the Little Rock Crisis to explode” (O’Brien 603). It still seemed that Kennedy advocacy of civil rights was highly influenced by political needs rather than his moral obligation. Heath believes that “no single factor decided the 1960 election. Instead, a combination of many and a measure of good luck as well made John F. Kennedy President (47).

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