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Computers in teaching and learning History

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2.6 Computers in teaching and learning History

There’s been much discussion recently about the ‘information superhighway’ and the need for students to develop multiple literacies to navigate that highway. SOSE, including its History elements, offers rich opportunities for that to happen. The critical approaches described above can be applied to the special challenge of computerised texts.

This means more, of course, than enthusiastically embracing the use of computers in education, and sharpening your technological skills. Some of the most ardent advocates of computers in education have warned of possible pitfalls. Young people, they claim, need to learn how the almost limitless information on the Internet can be used as a basis for forming knowledge and, ultimately, as part of the deeper process of developing wisdom. Thus, they need to approach new technologies critically.
There are also social justice issues. Even in a developed country like Australia, there are many people without access to computers, and many schools that cannot afford new technologies. So moves towards computer-based teaching and learning could produce new inequalities. Further, it’s sobering to be reminded that over half the people on earth have never used a telephone, much less surfed the Internet. There may be an information superhighway, but most people are not yet travelling along it.
Still, for those with access to new technologies, there can be educational benefits. SOSE students can be encouraged to ask critical questions about the materials they locate on web sites. Because postings on the Internet are virtually uncontrolled, it’s very important for students to think about the authorship, credibility, reliability and accuracy of what they see. That approach is a far cry from the indiscriminate downloading of information for projects and assignments.
At the end of this paper, there’s an annotated list of web sites. Visit some or all of these, and evaluate them in terms of their probable reliability, the quality of their content, their accessibility and their relevance to your teaching and your students’ learning.
There are other ways to use computers in the teaching and learning of History. Teachers and students alike may choose to present work using applications such as Powerpoint. Discussion groups may be set up on school or class home pages, where students can share ideas. Email may be used by students to work on group tasks even when they are not physically in the one place. Students may also use email or web sites to share ideas with students in other schools, even on the other side of the world.
For teachers, web sites can offer opportunities for professional development. For example, the Australian Federation for Societies for Studies of Society and Environment (AFSSSE) maintains a web site which links teacher associations (including various History Teacher Associations).

2.7 The advantages of an inquiry approach

The inquiry approach is quite different from the approach that was common in the ‘Old History’. Rather than just accepting and learning the description provided by a set text, or by the teacher, the students construct their own descriptions. The ‘Old History’ approach did not call on higher level thinking processes. But the inquiry approach invites students to think carefully, deeply and critically about historical sources (both primary and secondary) and to make well-founded judgments about historical questions.

These processes acknowledge the problematic qualities of historical sources (they can be incomplete, unrepresentative, ambiguous, dishonest, biased) and the partial and tentative character of historical interpretations and explanations (they reflect the standpoints of the writers, and the differences in the ways they’ve interpreted the available sources). Critical inquiry can enable young people to recognise that some descriptions, interpretations and assertions are more valid than others.
This inquiry approach helps young people develop important life skills – especially the ability to approach a challenge, opportunity or problem carefully, to weigh up the available evidence, and to make a soundly based decision. The inquiry approach also helps young people understand why different people have different attitudes and approaches. This understanding can underpin ‘empathy’ – the ability to ‘put yourself in someone else’s shoes’, to understand the knowledge, values, beliefs and attitudes that cause different people to see the world in different ways.
In everyday life, this approach can foster active citizenship. It can enable young people to read everyday texts (newspapers, television programs, political promises, advertisements) carefully and critically. They can identify contradictions and inconsistencies in individual actions and institutional practices. With such knowledge, they can negotiate more effectively with individuals and organisations, calling for openness and accountability.
3. History - Linking with the Years 1 to 10 SOSE Syllabus
The concepts and processes of History are embedded in the Years 1 to 10 SOSE Syllabus in many ways. The following sections highlight the ways in which 'History' can be related to the Strands, Key Values, Processes and Core Learning Outcomes of the syllabus.
3.1 Strands

Time, continuity and change

This is the strand in which History is central. In studies of time, continuity and change, the key History concepts of agency, causation and motive are explored. Issues of heritage, tradition, conflict and cooperation arise. The major 'isms' - capitalism, communism, imperialism, colonialism, nationalism, internationalism, racism, industrialism, totalitarianism, environmentalism, militarism and pacificism - are studied.

SOSE students use processes of historical inquiry, in which they construct explanations by subjecting sources of evidence to analysis, interpretation, evaluation and decision making.
Through History studies, SOSE students may make informed judgments about possible, probable and preferred futures. They also come to understand the ways in which people may exercise agency in effecting desired changes and continuities.

Place and space

Events and developments in History are influenced by, and impact upon, the social, natural and built environments in which they take place. One major focus of the History of humankind is the explanation and description of how people have used the resources of particular localities to meet needs and wants. Studies of material development and progress, and of maldevelopment and environmental damage, focus on changes in human usage of place and space.

Place and space have been important factors in the historical development and definition of communities and nations. Location has linked with racial, ethnic, folk and religious factors. Disputes over territory have been key turning points in human History - whether in civil or international wars, or in colonial occupation and resistance.
Studies of historical changes in technologies, cultures and economies can inform students' understandings of the current processes of globalisation.

Culture and identity

Through historical studies, people can describe and explain the ways in which cultural practices have emerged and changed over time. These studies can explain the emergence of different cultures in different times and places, and the processes of cultural adaptation, assimilation, rivalry and conflict.

Historical studies can also highlight the different ways in which 'identity' has been conceptualised at different times and in different places - including invented and assumed traditions that are variously religious, secular, individualistic or communal.
SOSE students can study the ways in which culture and identity have been used as rallying points for major historical forces - tribalism, regionalism, militarism, nationalism, religion and environmentalism.

Systems, resources and power

All three elements of this strand are significant in historical studies. Such studies can focus on the evolution of social systems, the human use of natural resources, and the ways in which power functions in human societies.

Historical studies of social systems can focus on the development of communities, cities, nations and supranational organisations. Within those broad contexts, more specific systems can be explored - political, economic, military, legal, educational, cultural and religious.
The History of resource usage includes studies of agricultural, industrial and technological developments, and studies of the ways in which human and built environments have been exploited, damaged, conserved and regenerated.
Power is central to studies of History. The concept of power is crucial in explaining why particular changes occur and why others do not. Struggles over power have characterised human History. Analyses of power relations are important in explaining systems of inequality and disadvantage such as social class, racism and sexism. Power structures also maintain and nurture cultural identity, artistic expression and systems of protection and security.
3.2 History and the SOSE Key Values
Through History studies, SOSE students can understand the emergence of the various values identified in the statement of SOSE key values. Studying and debating the meaning and role of these key values – today and in the past - can provide criteria for students to evaluate historical events, developments, traditions, institutions and practices. However, because History focuses mainly on events remote in time and place, such evaluations must be approached cautiously. In studying History, the emphasis is on understanding and explaining the past, not on judging (and perhaps condemning) people's past ideas and actions. Still, there is value in students asking whether past ideas and actions contributed to the well-being of people and the planet - even while acknowledging that definitions of 'well-being' have varied over time and across cultures.

Democratic process

Through History studies, SOSE students can investigate the development of democratic ideas, institutions and practices. They can understand the ways in which democratic ideals challenged previously dominant ideological beliefs and practices. Students will understand how the scope of the term has widened to embrace people of different classes, genders, races and ages. They can also understand different ways in which democracy has been defined, and different traditions of democratic practice such as direct democracy, representative (parliamentary) democracy and radical egalitarian democracy.

Students will appreciate that these democratic traditions are European in origin, and that non-European societies were based on, and still may embrace different beliefs about the balance between individuality, freedom, authority and decision making.

Social justice

Studies of History highlight strong links with social justice values. Students can explore the historical emergence of beliefs in justice, human rights, equality and freedom. They will understand how injustices - real and perceived - have motivated progressive historical struggles. They will note how the notion of 'justice' has been extended to include people of different ethnicities, classes and genders (the Universal Declaration of Human Rights), non-human life forms (the 'rights of nature’), and future generations ('intergenerational equity').

Ecological and economic sustainability

Through History studies, SOSE students can investigate the changing ways in which people have perceived, valued and used the natural environment. Students can trace the origins of the current perceived ecological crisis, and of the various responses of 'environmentalism' – Global summits, green politics, community action.

Similarly, students can study the different ways in which societies have embraced the challenge to balance human needs and wants with the need for social justice, peace and environmental sustainability. They can investigate the recent calls for ecologically sustainable development, and the energetic debates about that goal.

Peace

Studies of History have often been preoccupied with human conflict, especially through studies of warfare, revolution, dissent and oppression. There has also been a focus on attempts to resolve global, regional, national and civil unrest. Inevitably, such studies have grappled with the challenge of creating peaceful relations within societies and among nations.

Such studies can present SOSE students with challenging questions: Can there be peace without justice? Is the idea of a 'just war' defensible? Grappling with these questions, and others involving the SOSE key values, can be a vital part of young people's preparation for citizenship in the complex modern world.
3.3 History and Learning Outcomes
The following tables list some specific SOSE core learning outcomes that relate directly to the study of History. The outcomes statements refer to both conceptual knowledge and processes.
In these tables, key terms related to History have been underlined for emphasis. The number of underlined words indicates how valuably History can help students’ achievement of the SOSE learning outcomes.

Table 1 Time, continuity and change

Level	Relevant Outcomes
1	TCC 1.1 Students describe their past and their future using evidence from familiar settings. TCC 1.2 Students sequence evidence representing changes and continuities in their lives. TCC 1.3 Students share points of view about their own and others’ stories. TCC 1.4 Students describe effects of a change over time in a familiar environment. TCC 1.5 Students identify what older people value from the past.
2	TCC 2.1 Students explain different meanings about an event, artefact, story or symbol from different times. TCC 2.2 Students record changes and continuities in familiar settings using various devices. TCC 2.3 Students cooperatively evaluate how people have contributed to changes in the local environment. TCC 2.4 Students describe cause and effect relationships about events in familiar settings. TCC 2.5 Students identify similarities and differences between the experiences of family generations.
3	TCC 3.1 Students use evidence about innovations in media and technology to investigate how these have changed society. TCC 3.2 Students create sequences and timelines about specific Australian changes and continuities. TCC 3.3 Students use knowledge of people’s contributions in Australia’s past to cooperatively develop visions of preferred futures. TCC 3.4 Students organise information about the causes and effects of specific historical events. TCC 3.5 Students describe various perspectives based on the experiences of past and present Australians of diverse cultural backgrounds.
4	TCC 4.1 Students use primary sources to investigate situations before and after a change in Australian or global settings. TCC 4.2 Students illustrate the influence of global trends on the beliefs and values of different groups. TCC 4.3 Students share empathetic responses to contributions that diverse individuals and groups have made to Australian or global history. TCC 4.4 Students critique information sources to show the positive and negative effects of a change or continuity on different groups. TCC 4.5 Students review and interpret heritages from diverse perspectives to create a preferred future scenario about a global issue.
5	TCC 5.1 Students use primary and secondary evidence to identify the development of ideas from ancient to modern times. TCC 5.2 Students represent situations before and after a period of rapid change. TCC 5.3 Students collaborate to locate and systematically record information about the contributions of people in diverse past settings. TCC 5.4 Students explain the consequences of Australia’s international relations on the development of a cohesive society. TCC 5.5 Students identify values inherent in historical sources to reveal who benefits or is disadvantaged by particular heritages.
6	TCC 6.1 Students evaluate evidence from the past to demonstrate how such accounts reflect the culture in which they were constructed. TCC 6.2 Students use their own research focus to analyse changes or continuities in the Asia-Pacific region. TCC 6.3 Students collaboratively identify the values underlying contributions by diverse individuals and groups in Australian or Asian environments. TCC 6.4 Students produce a corroborated argument concerning causes of a change or continuity in environments, media or gender roles. TCC 6.5 Students develop criteria-based judgments about the ethical behaviour of people in the past.

Table 2 Place and space

Level	Relevant Outcomes
2	PS 2.2 Students predict possible consequences for an ecological system when an element is affected. PS 2.5 Students express a preferred future vision for a familiar place based on observed evidence of changes and continuities.
3	PS 3.5 Students describe the values underlying personal and other people’s actions regarding familiar places.
4	PS 4.2 Students predict the impact of changes on environments by comparing evidence.
5	PS 5.5 Students evaluate ideas concerning sustainability to identify who may benefit and who may be disadvantaged from changes to a Queensland industry.
6	PS 6.4 Students use maps, tables and statistical data to express predictions about the impact of change on environments.

Table 3 Culture and identity

Level	Relevant Outcomes
1	CI 1.1 Students compare ideas and feelings about stories of diverse cultures including Torres Strait Islander cultures and Aboriginal cultures.
2	CI 2.3 Students participate in diverse customs and traditions to identify how these contribute to a sense of belonging to groups.
3	CI 3.1 Students identify the contributions of diverse groups, including migrants and indigenous peoples, to the development of their community. CI 3.4 Students communicate an awareness of change within Aboriginal cultures and Torres Strait Islander cultures.
4	CI 4.1 Students investigate how religions and spiritual beliefs contribute to Australia’s diverse cultures. CI 4.4 Students describe changes resulting from cross-cultural contact on Australian and non-Australian indigenous cultures.
5	CI 5.2 Students devise practical and informed strategies that respond to the impact of particular perceptions of cultural groups held by a community. CI 5.4 Students describe how governments have caused changes to particular groups. CI 5.5 Students express how dominant and marginalised identities are constructed by media and other influences.
6	CI 6.3 Students collaboratively develop a community strategy for celebrating or moderating the effects of globalisation on cultural groups to which they belong. CI 6.4 Students describe instances of cultural change resulting from government legislation or policies that have impacted on cultural groups.

Table 4 Systems, resources and power

Level	Relevant Outcomes
3	SRP 3.2 Students create a representation of occupational specialisation and interdependence in an industry from the past, present or future. SRP 3.4 Students describe simply the basic principles of democracy and citizenship from ancient to modern times.
4	SRP 4.4 Students present comparisons of government and citizenship in pre- and post-Federation Australia. SRP 4.5 Students classify values that underpin campaigns and organisations associated with human or environmental rights.
5	SRP 5.2 Students design models of the Australian economic system to demonstrate its relationship to global trade. SRP 5.5 Students apply the value of social justice to suggest ways of improving access to democracy in Queensland or other Australian political settings.
6	SRP 6.2 Students make practical suggestions for improving productivity and working conditions in an industry or business. SRP 6.4 Students communicate informed interpretations to suggest reforms to an economic, a political or a legal system. SRP 6.5 Students apply understandings of social justice and democratic process to suggest ways of improving access to economic and political power.

4. Suggested Curriculum Themes and Topics
The themes in the following table offer valuable opportunities for SOSE students to engage in historical inquiries and to develop understandings of historical concepts and information. For each theme, some relevant outcomes are identified within each strand. Others are possible.
In a subsequent table, a specific topic is identified, together with a possible key question at a specific level, and a sample approach relevant to that question.
Table 5 Suggested themes, strands and outcomes

Themes	TCC	PS	CI	SRP
Histories, historians and historiography	2.2, 3.1, 6.1, 6.3, 6.4		3.5
Personal & family histories	1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 2.1, 2.4	1.1	1.1, 4.5 5.3
Local histories	1.4, 3.1, 3.5, 5.3	3.3, 3.5, 5.5	3.1
Histories, heritages and traditions	3.1	5.4	1.1, 2.3, 3.4, 5.2, 6.1	4.4
The History of ideas and beliefs	4.2, 5.1		3.1, 3.5, 5.1, 5.5	3.4
History and human progress	3.3, 5.1, 5.4, 5.5		5.5	4.4, 4.5, 5.5
History, change, causation and motive	1.3, 1.4, 2.4, 3.1, 3.4, 4.1, 4.2, 5.2, 5.5, 6.1, 6.3	2.1, 2.2, 2.5 3.5, 4.4, 5.1, 5.5 6.4	3.1, 4.1, 4.4 5.5, 6.2, 6.4	4.1, 4.5
History and conflict	5.5		5.4
History and cooperation	5.4			4.5
History and cultures	3.5, 4.2, 6.1		1.1, 1.2, 2.3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.4 4.1, 5.1, 5.4, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 6.4
Environments and History	4.2	3.5, 4.2, 4.4, 5.1, 5.5, 6.1, 6.4		3.1, 4.5
History, civics & citizenship	6.1, 6.5		5.5	3.4, 4.4, 4.5, 5.1
History, economies and work	5.3, 6.4			3.2, 5.2, 6.2, 6.4
History and Australian national development	3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 4.3, 4.5, 5.3, 5.4, 6.3, 6.4		4.4	3.1, 4.1
History, technologies and media	3.1		3.1, 4.4 5.4	3.2
History and globalisation	3.1, 4.1, 4.5		6.3, 6.4
History and futures	1.2, 1.5, 2.5, 3.3, 4.3, 4.5	2.5, 3.3, 4.3	3.2, 6.4	5.2, 6.5

Table 6 Suggested specific topics

theme: Histories, historians and historiography
specific topic: Immigrant histories of Australia
key question at level 6: How diverse have been the immigrant experiences of Australia since 1945? [Outcome TCC 6, TCC 6.3]
sample approach: Using published books, interviews, diaries, film and video, students write a number of different histories of immigrant experience, and compare those histories to highlight how histories are constructed from different standpoints.

theme: Personal & family histories
specific topic: My own History.
key question at level 1: How can I show my own History? [Outcome TCC 1.1]
sample approach: Each student sequences evidence (birthday cards, photos of home and family, toys, birth certificate) of events in their life since birth (birthdays, toddling, walking, coming to school, achievements, celebrations).

theme: Local histories
specific topic: The development of the local community.
key question at level 3: Who helped build our community? [Outcome TCC 3.5]
sample approach: Using a class-constructed local map and time line as the foundations, each student researches the contribution of a person or group to the development of the community. The research is presented in the form of a display card attached to either the map or time line. The class discusses and debates the relative merits of each person and group. They evaluate whether the display tells the 'whole story', whether some contributions may have been overlooked in historical records, why, and how the story might be made more complete and representative.

theme: Histories, heritages and traditions
specific topic: Australian heritage environments
key question at level 5: Why have some Australian environments been ascribed special heritage value? [Outcome PS 5.4]
sample approach: Different significant heritage environments are allocated to different groups of students. The groups use website searches and text research to highlight the criteria for ascribing heritage value. Following displays and reports, students discuss the adequacy of the identified criteria, and make subsequent recommendations.

theme: The History of ideas and beliefs
specific topic: Bikers, bikies, beliefs and behaviours.
key question at level 5: How has the mystique of motorcycling been manufactured and maintained? [Outcome CI 5.5]
sample approach: Students draw on popular representations of motorcycling in books, film, advertisements and magazines, together with interviews and observations, to explore and explain the shared and diverse values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviours of those who ride, and the attitudes to motorcycle cultures of those who don't.

theme: History and human progress
specific topic: The women's movements
key question at level 4: What have been the achievements of the women's movements of the twentieth century? [Outcome SRP 4.5]
sample approach: Through study of primary and secondary sources, and through survey, questionnaire and interview, students prepare a report (in essay, poster, video or hypertext form) evaluating the successes of one or more women’s organisations or movements in effecting changes in women's status and roles.

theme: History, change, causation and motive
specific topic: The effects of the seasons
key question at level 2: How do Queensland and Tasmanian children react to changes in the seasons [Outcome TCC 2.1]
sample approach: The Australian class establishes e-mail links with a class in Tasmania through an Internet pen pal approach or a 'travel buddies' approach. Through regular communications, the class constructs a large display that traces the comparative responses of the two groups of children to seasonal changes.

theme: History and conflict
specific topic: Indigenous/Non-indigenous contacts in the past 200 years
key question at level 5: Does White Australia have a Black History? [Outcome TCC 5.5]
sample approach: Students evaluate this ambiguous question through study of primary and secondary sources. They explore both the character of the contacts, and the historiographical issue of how those contacts have been portrayed by historians and popular writers, artists, photographers, song writers and film makers at different times in Australia's History.

theme: History and cooperation
specific topic: Multicultural Australia
key question at level 5: Has Australia become a successful experiment in multiculturalism? [Outcome TCC 5.4]
sample approach: Students use biographical and autobiographical writings by immigrants from different cultural and ethnic groups in Australia, together with interviews, surveys and the analysis of current media representations, to evaluate the extent to which government policies promoted the emergence of multicultural values, attitudes and practices.

theme: History and cultures
specific topic: New Year celebrations
key question at level 2: How can the New Year be celebrated? [Outcome CI 2.3]
sample approach: Students compare the mainstream Australian celebrations of New Year with the celebration of the Chinese New Year by Chinese-Australians and other Australians. They investigate the diversity of celebratory approaches in each, and try to identify the cultural and other factors which produce that diversity.

theme: Environments and History
specific topic: The impact of the automobile
key question at level 6: How has a particular community been changed by the increasing use of private automobiles? [Outcome PS 6.4]
sample approach: Students use a combination of text research, field studies and interviews to construct a picture of the impact of automobile use on a particular community. In groups, students then devise a preferred strategy for responding to current and future developments, and for promoting positive possibilities.

theme: History, civics & citizenship
specific topic: Indigenous Australians as citizens
key question at level 4: [Outcome SRP 4.4]
sample approach: Students investigate, document and explain the ways in which indigenous Australians were denied, and then gained formal citizenship status, and evaluate the extent to which that achievement has been matched by active involvement in social issues, developments and decision making.

theme: History, economies and work
specific topic: Telecommunications in Australia
key question at level 3: [Outcome SRP 3.2]
sample approach: Students use a 'slice of time' approach to construct depictions of the telecommunications industry in Australia in 1909, 1959 and 1999. Causal factors are identified. The advantages and disadvantages of changes are evaluated from the perspectives of workers in the industry, consumers and the community at large.

theme: History and Australian national development
specific topic: Changes in Australian schooling
key question at level 6: How and why has life in Australian schools changed during the past century? [Outcome TCC 6.4]
sample approach: Students use a combination of research approaches - oral History interviews, study of texts and policies, examination of artefacts, site visits - to describe and explain the changes and continuities in Australian schooling practices.

theme: History, technologies and media
specific topic: The impact of television on Australian society
key question at level 3.1: How has television ownership and viewing affected family and social life in Australia? [Outcome TCC 3.1]
sample approach: Students use an oral History approach, interviewing people who can provide evidence about family and social life at key stages in the past - just before television was introduced; when television ownership became widespread; when colour television was introduced; when VCRs became common; when pay TV was introduced - to produce a report (perhaps in the form of a television current affairs segment) in answer to the question.

theme: History and globalisation
specific topic: Workers in the global fashion industry
key question at level 6: How fair are conditions in the global fashion industry? [Outcome

CI 6.3 ]
sample approach: Students investigate this question, using mainly web site searching, to prepare a report to the Australian federal government on how to respond to any unfair aspects of the industry. Students focus on the development of off-shore manufacturing using cheap labour, and the exploitation of child models in the advertising sector of the fashion industry. Students also discuss proposals for responding at personal, group and community levels.

theme: History and futures
specific topic: The future of our neighbourhood
key question at level 2: What would we like our neighbourhood to be like in ten years time? [Outcome PS 2.5]
sample approach: Students examine evidence of the ways in which the local neighbourhood has changed in recent times, both materially and socially. They discuss what the 'probable future' may be, given current trends, and what their 'preferred future' would be. Students discuss practical steps which could be taken to bring the 'preferred future' to fruition.

5. Resources
5.1 Texts about History and historiography
Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G. & Tiffin, H. (eds.). 1992, ‘Part 1: History’ in The Post-Colonial Studies Reader, Routledge, London, pp 355-83.

Blainey, G. 1993, ‘Drawing up a balance sheet of our History’, Quadrant, Vol 37, No 298, pp 10-15.

Bennett, T. et al. (eds.). 1992, Celebrating The Nation; A Critical Study of Australia's Bicentenary, Allen & Unwin, Sydney.

Broome, R. 1994, ‘Aboriginal victims and voyagers; confronting frontier myths’, Journal of Australian Studies, Vol 42, pp 70-77.

Carter, P. 1987, ‘Introduction; a cake of portable soup’ (pp x iii-xxv) in Road to Botany Bay, Faber and Faber, London.

Chappell, D. 1995, ‘Active agency vs passive victimisation; decolonised historiography or problematic construct?’, in Talu, A. & Quanchi, M. (eds.), Messy Entanglements, PHA, Brisbane.

Curthoys, A. 1996, ‘Opening address; Thinking about History’, Australian Historical Association Bulletin, No 83, pp 14-28.

Danaher, G., Coombes, P. & Danaher, P.A. 1993, ‘Some implications of post- structuralism for studying and teaching History in Australian universities and schools’, Australian Historical Association Bulletin, No 74, pp 33-39.

Davison, G. 1988, ‘The use and abuse of Australian History’ in Making the Bicentenary, Special Edition of Australian Historical Studies, Vol 23, No 91, pp 55-76.

Dening, G. 1995, The Death of William Gooch; A History's Anthropology, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

Etherington, N, 1996, ‘Presidential address; Trends and prospects’, Australian Historical Association Bulletin, No 83, pp 29-42.

Farrell, F. 1990, ‘Specialisation, fashions and change’ (Chp 8 pp 155-86) in Themes in Australian History; Questions, Issues and Interpretation in an Evolving Historiography, UNSW Press, Sydney.

Hamilton, P. 1994, ‘The knife edge; debates about memory and History’ in Darian Smith, K. & Hamilton, P. (eds), Memory and History in Twentieth Century Australia, OUP, Melbourne, pp 9-32.

Healy, C. 1997, ‘Introduction’ (pp 1-10) in From The Ruins of Colonialism; History as Social Memory, CUP, Melbourne.

Hudson, W. & Bolton, G. (eds.), 1997, ‘Creating Australia’ (Chp 1, pp 1-11) in Creating Australia; Changing Australian History, Allen and Unwin, Sydney.

Linnekin, J. 1997, ‘Contending approaches’ in Dennon, D. (ed.), The Cambridge History of the Pacific Islanders, CUP, Cambridge.

McIntyre, S. 1996, ‘Discipline review; History’, Australian Historical Association Bulletin, No 83, pp 1-13.

McIntyre, S. & Thomas, J. (eds.). 1995, The discovery of Australian History 1890-1939, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.

McIntyre, S, 1988, ‘The writing of Australian History’, in Borchardt, D.H. & Crittenden, V. (eds.), Australians; a Guide to Sources, Fairfax Syme Weldon, Sydney, pp 1-29.

Morehead, A. 1956,The Fatal Impact, Penguin.

Moses, J. (ed.), 1979, Historical disciplines and Culture in Australasia; An Assessment, University of Queensland Press, Queensland.

Pascoe, R. 1979, The Manufacture of Australian History, OUP, Melbourne.

Potts, D. 1991, ‘Two modes of writing History; the poverty of Ethnography and the potential of narrative’, Australian Historical Association Bulletin, No 66-67, pp 5-24.

Reynolds, H. 1994 ‘History’ (Chp 1, pp. 24-40) in Nile, R. (ed.), Australian civilization, OUP, Melbourne.

Russell, P. & White, R. (eds.). 1994, Pastiche 1; Reflections on Nineteenth Century Australia, Allen and Unwin, Sydney.

Russell, P. & White, R. (eds.). 1997, Pastiche 11; Memories and Dreams; Reflections on Twentieth Century Australia, Allen and Unwin, Sydney.

Ward, J.M. 1963, ‘Historiography’ in McLeod, A.L. (ed.), The Pattern of Australian Culture, Melbourne,

White, R. 1981, Inventing Australia; Images and Identity 1788-1980, Allen and Unwin, Sydney.

Windshuttle, K. 1996, ‘Paris labels and designer concepts’ (Chp 1 pp 7-40) in The killing of History, Macleay, Sydney.

Young, R. 1990, White Mythologies; Writing History and the West, Routledge, London.

5.2 Texts about teaching and learning History
Gilbert, R. (ed.). 1996, Studying Society and Environment: A Handbook for Teachers, Macmillan, Melbourne.

Husbands, C. 1996, What is History Teaching?, Open University Press, UK.

Marsh, C. (ed.). 1998, Teaching Studies of Society and Environment, Second Edition, Prentice Hall, Sydney.

Portal, C. (1987), The History Curriculum for Teachers, The Falmer Press, Lewes.

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