Parallel computer models
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- Computer Development Milestones
- Five Generations of Electronic Computers as shown in table
- Elements of Modern Computers
- Algorithms and Data Structures
- Evolution Of Computer Architecture
- Lookahead, Paralleism and Pipelining
- SISD uniprocessor architecture
| Unit-1
PARALLEL COMPUTER MODELS The state of computing Modern computers are equipped with powerful hardware facilitates driven by extensive software packages. To assess the state of computing we first review historical milestones in the development of computers. Computer Development Milestones Computers have gone through two major stages of development:. Mechanical and Electronic. Prior to 1945, computers were made with mechanical or electromechanical parts.The earliest mechanical computer can be traced back to 500 BC in the form of the Abacus used in china. The abacus is manually operated to perform decimal arithmetic with carry propagation digit by digit. Blaise pascal built a mechanical adder/subtractor in France in 1642. Charles Babbage designed a difference engine in England for polynomial evaluation in 1827.Konard zuse Built the first binary mechanical computer in germany in 1941.Howard Aiken proposed the very first electromechanical decimal computer, which was built as the Harvard Mark I by IBM in 1944. Both zuse and Aiken machines were designed for general-purpose computations. Obviously, the fact that computing and communication were carried out with moving mechanical parts greatly limited the computing speed and reliability of mechanical computers. Modern computers were marked by the introduction of electronic components. Computer Generations Over the past five decades, electronic computers have gone through fine generations of development. Each of first three generations lasted about 10 years. The fourth generations covered a time span of 15 years. We have just entered the fifth generations with the use of processors & memory devices with more than 1 million transistors on single silicon chip. The table indicates the new hardware and software features introduced with each generation. Most features introduced in earlier generations havebeen passed to later generations. In other words, the latest generation computers have inherited all the bad ones found in previous generations. Five Generations of Electronic Computers as shown in table
The First Generation: From the architectural and software points of view, first- generation computers were built with a single central processing unit(CPU) which performed serial fixed-point arithmetic using a program counter, branch instructions, and an accumulator. The CPU must be involved in all memory access and input/output (I/O) operations. Machine or assembly languages were used. Representative systems include the ENIAC(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) ,IAS,IBM 701.
And I/O processors were introduced with second- generation computers.High-Level Languages(HLLs) such as Fortran,Algol and Cobol were introduced along with compilers,Subroutine libraries and batch processing monitors. Representative systems includethe IBM 7090,CDC 1604, Univac LARC.
Microprogrammed control became popular with this generation. Pipelining and Cache memory were introduced to close up the speed gap between the CPU and Main memory. The idea of multiprogramming was implemented to interleave CPUand I/O Activities across multiple user programs.This led to the development of time-sharing operating systems(OS) using virtual memory with greater sharing or multiplexing of resources.
Representative systems include the VAX 9000, Cray X-MP,IBM/3090 VF,BBN TC-2000. The Fifth Generation: Fifth-generation computers have just begun to appear. These Machines emphasize massively parallel processing(MPP). Scalable and latency-tolerant Architectures are being adopted in MPP systems usingVLSI silicon,GaAs technologies, high-density packaging and optical technologies. The fifth-generation MPP systems are represented by seversl recently announced projects at Fujitsu(VPP500), Cray Research(MPP), Thinking machines Corporation(CM-5), and Intel Supercomputer systems(the Paragon). Elements of Modern Computers : The hardware, software, and programming elements of modern computer systems can be characterized by looking at a variety of factors in context of parallel computing these factors are: Computing problems • Algorithms and data structures • Hardware resources • Operating systems • System software support • Compiler support Computing Problems . Numerical computing complex mathematical formulations tedious integer or floating -point computation • Transaction processing accurate transactions large database management information retrieval • Logical Reasoning logic inferences symbolic manipulations Algorithms and Data Structures .Traditional algorithms and data structures are designed for sequential machines. • New, specialized algorithms and data structures are needed to exploit the capabilities of parallel architectures. • These often require interdisciplinary interactions among theoreticians, experimentalists, and programmers. Hardware Resources . The architecture of a system is shaped only partly by the hardware resources. • The operating system and applications also significantly influence the overall architecture. • Not only must the processor and memory architectures be considered, but also the architecture of the device interfaces (which often include their advanced processors). Operating System . Operating systems manage the allocation and deallocation of resources during user program execution. • UNIX, Mach, and OSF/1 provide support for multiprocessors and multicomputers • multithreaded kernel functions virtual memory management file subsystems network communication services • An OS plays a significant role in mapping hardware resources to algorithmic and data structures.
• Compilers, assemblers, and loaders are traditional tools for developing programs in high-level languages. With the operating system, these tools determine the bind of resources to applications, and the effectiveness of this determines the efficiency of hardware utilization and the system’s programmability. • Most programmers still employ a sequential mind set, abetted by a lack of popular parallel software support.
• New languages have obvious advantages (like new constructs specifically for parallelism), but require additional programmer education and system software. • The most common approach is to extend an existing language.
• Preprocessors use existing sequential compilers and specialized libraries to implement parallel constructs • Precompilers perform some program flow analysis, dependence checking, and limited parallel optimzations • Parallelizing Compilers requires full detection of parallelism in source code, and transformation of sequential code into parallel constructs • Compiler directives are often inserted into source code to aid compiler parallelizing efforts
The study of computer architecture involves both hardware organization and programming/ software requirements. computer architecture is abstracted by its instruction set, which includes opcode,addressing modes, registers , virtual memory etc. Over the past four decades, computer architecture has gone through evolutional rather than revolutional changes sustaining features are those that were proven performance delivers. According to the figure we started with the Von Neumann architecturebuilt as a sequential machine executing scalar data. Sequential computers improved from bit serial to word-parallel operations & from fixed point to floating point operations. The Von Neumann architecture is slow due to sequential execution of instructions in programme. Lookahead, Paralleism and Pipelining : Lookahead techniques were introduced to prefetch instructions in order to overlap I/E (instruction fetch/decode and execution) operations and to enable functional parallelism. Functional parallelism was supported by two approaches: One is to use multiple functional units simultaneously and the other is to practice pipelining at various processing levels. The latter includes pipelined instruction execution, pipelined arithmetic computations and memory access operations. Pipelining has proven especially attractive in performing identical operations repeatedly over vector data strings. Vectors operations were originally carried out implicitly by software controlled looping using scalar pipeline processors. .
Michael Flynn introduced a classification of various computer architectures based on notions of instruction and data streams. As illustrated in the Figure 4.1 conventional sequential machines are called SISD Computers. Vector are equipped with scalar and vector hardware or appear as SIMD machines. Parallel computers are reserved for MIMD machines. An MISD machines are modeled. The same data stream flows through a linear array of processors executing different instruction streams. This architecture is also known as systolic arrays for pipelined execution of specific algorithms. 
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