Chapter 10. Design and Materials in Ice Hockey

with higher force values (
Culhane, 2012; Forget, 2013; Fortier et al.,
2014; Le Ngoc, 2012
). Thus flexible tendon guard skates have yet to demonstrate that they increase force production during push-off compared to standard skates.
The ultimate goal of any skate design is to improve performance including increasing speed and acceleration. Previous studies have compared performance measures between flexible tendon guard skates and standard skates. There were no differences in time to complete forward skating and crossover tasks between these models in adult, males on ice
(
Robert-Lachaine et al., 2012
). Likewise, these skate models also demonstrated no differences in acceleration during a start task on ice (
Culhane,
2012
). Alternatively, another study found that flexible tendon guard skates increased maximal skating speed by 13% compared to standard skates on a skating treadmill in teen, male skaters (
Tidman, 2015
). Considering these conflicting findings, there is insufficient evidence to conclude that flexible tendon guard skates improve skating performance.
In summary, flexible tendon guard skates do allow for additional ankle plantarflexion during skating on ice compared to standard skates.
However, it is not clear if this increased motion is due to other skate modifications such as raised eyelets or more flexible skate tongues. Unlike klapskates the increased plantarflexion inflexible tendon guard skates did
FS
–80
–60
–40
–20 Force (% body weight 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
COO
ML average force
ML peak force
Vertical average force
Vertical peak force
Total average force
Total peak force
COI
FS
COO
COI
FS
COO
COI
FS
COO
COI
FS
COO COI
FS
COO
SS
MS
COI
Figure 10.3 Skating force components (mean SD) in the three skills (FS, COO leg,
and COI leg) for an SS and an MS with a flexible tendon guard and raised eyelets with a flexible tongue. COI, Crossover inside COO, crossover outside FS, forward skating MS, modified skate SS, standard skate. Reprinted with permission from Robert-
Lachaine, X, Turcotte, R, Dixon, P, & Pearsall, D. (2012). Impact of hockey skate design on ankle motion and force production. Sports Engineering, 15(4), 197 Design and Materials in Ice Hockey

not necessarily lead to increased force production or improved performance. Perhaps the nature of ice hockey precludes any potential benefit.
Specifically, ice hockey involves constantly changing skating tasks in order to adjust to the location of the puck and other players. Since skating tasks change frequently, this may limit the benefit of any increased ankle plantarflexion. In comparison, long track speed skating requires skaters to complete the same skating task for long periods, and thus the benefit of increased plantarflexion and increased power is more cumulative.
Furthermore, limitations with the research examining flexible tendon guards exist. For most studies, players had limited experience with the flexible tendon guards, and a longer familiarization period is required.
Also, forces were only measured in one or two dimensions for the studies.
Understanding three-dimensional forces would provide a greater picture of how flexible tendon guard skates and other skate modifications affect skating kinetics Summary of Boot Properties
As presently constructed, the standard hockey skate does introduce some movement restriction in the ankle joint. This stiffness in the medial lateral direction appears beneficial. Skates can be modified to allow greater dorsiflexion plantarflexion range of motion, although there is no guarantee that this improves performance. The range of motion is only one factor that relates to skating performance. The task of skating in ice hockey is very complex since it includes a variety of skating skills.
Many distinctly different, yet essential, maneuvers are necessary to be able to perform efficiently in the context of a game situation. The range of motion observed during skating in ice hockey must not be based solely on anatomical restrictions, but also on the kinematics of the skating stride.
In addition, changing mobility in the ankle has implications for the coupling and coordination of the kinematics of the entire body especially the hip, knee, and ankle EVALUATING SKATE BLADE SHARPENING AND DESIGN
Much like other aspects of skate design, the blade design and style of skate sharpening is largely driven by manufacturers, technicians, and player preference. There is limited scientific data examining whether various aspects of blade design can impact ice hockey skating performance,
although interest in this research area has been growing.
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Materials in Sports Equipment

Blade geometry can be altered with skate sharpening including the radius of contour, radius of hollow, and pivot point (Fig. 10.4
). The radius of contour, also known as the rocker or radius of profile, is the longitudinal shape of the blade (Fig. A) (Lockwood & Frost, 2009
). It has been suggested that a larger radius of contour increases the blade contact with the ice which could increase skating speed (Lockwood & Frost, Alternatively, a smaller radius of contour may decrease blade ice contact and increase agility (Lockwood & Frost, 2009
). Some skates have a combination of radius of contour values such that the radius of contour is shorter at the front of the blade and longer at the back of the blade. A survey of
National Hockey League teams found that the radius of curvatures for skaters ranged from 2.44 tom (Lockwood & Frost, 2009
). The radius of hollow is the groove between the outside and inside edges of the blade width (Fig. B) (Lockwood & Frost, 2009
). A smaller radius of hollow results in a deeper groove and gives the feeling of a sharper skate.
Figure 10.4 (A) The radius of contour and (B) radius of hollow parameters for skate blades. (C) Typical values for the radius of hollow.
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Design and Materials in Ice Hockey

It is hypothesized that a smaller radius of hollow will improve the grip of the blade on the ice and is better for turning and stopping, but this increased grip will diminish speed (
Federolf & Redmond, Lockwood & Frost, 2009
). The radius of hollow is typically between (3/8 in) and 15.88 mm (5/8 in) for skaters (Fig. C) (
Federolf Redmond, 2010; Lockwood & Frost, 2009
). The pitch of the skate can be changed by altering the pivot point, or rocker point, of the blade,
which will cause the skate to tilt forward or backward (
Federolf Redmond, 2010; Lockwood & Frost, 2009
). This pivot point is the apex of the blade. Moving the pivot point toward the toes is thought to shift the body weight forward versus moving the pivot point toward the heels which could shift the body weight backward (Lockwood & Frost, There are longstanding beliefs of how blade geometry can impact player performance and how geometry should be altered based on player position, task demands, and subjective feel. However, there are few studies that provide objective data of how blade geometry impacts ice hockey skating performance. One study examined the impact of radius of hollow on blade ice friction by using an aluminum sled (
Federolf Redmond, 2010
). The sled was accelerated by an air compressor, and gliding times were measured with photocells at 4, 6, and 8 m. Three blades with different radius of hollow values were examined (6.35, and 19.05 mm. The friction coefficient was significantly the lowest for the large radius of hollow (19.05 mm) and significantly the highest for the small radius of hollow (6.35 mm. This provides evidence that smaller radius of hollow increases grip between the blade ice interface but might sacrifice speed. Within the same study the researchers also tested the impact of radius of hollow on 15 ice hockey players (14 males, 1 female)
(
Federolf & Redmond, 2010
). Players completed an agility course requiring them to make four turns in each direction. Players used their normal hollow, a hollow reduced by 6.35 mm, and a hollow increased by mm. The radius of hollow did significantly impact the task completion time. The smallest radius of hollow (3.2 mm) increased the time by while there was no difference between skates with a radius of hollow between 9.5 and 22.3 mm. Thus only extremely small radius of hollow mm) negatively impacted skating performance, but this value is not recommended for typical skate sharpening. Within the normal range 22.3 mm) the radius hollow did not affect skating performance.
Also, players were asked to identify whether they were using normal blades, sharper blades, or duller blades. Only 4 out of the 15 players
308
Materials in Sports Equipment

identified correctly the type of blade, and thus players were not sensitive to the radius of hollow.
Another study also compared three blades with different radius of hollow values (6.3, 12.7, and 19.0 mm) on skating performance in Junior
B male hockey players (n 15) (Winchester, 2007
). Players were required to skate goal line to goal line and then return to a blue line. Kinematic parameters (e.g., stride length, stop time) were measured during the initial start phase and stopping phase. Total task completion time and starting speed at 6 m were not significantly different between blades. However,
the smallest radius of hollow (6.3 mm) resulted in shorter stop distances and quicker stop times during the stopping phase. This, again, indicates that blades with a smaller radius of hollow increase grip between the blade ice interface. During the start phase the largest radius of hollow mm) had a quicker stride rate and shorter stride length. Researchers speculated that the largest radius of hollow might have had trouble gripping the ice and thus led to a shorter stride length.
The impact of radius of hollow on skating performance was further tested by examining oxygen consumption (Morrison, Pearsall, Turcotte,
Lockwood, & Montgomery, 2005
). Varsity female hockey players (n skated on a specialized skating treadmill at three different submaximal velocities using three different radii of hollow values (6.35, 12.7, and mm. There were no significant differences in oxygen consumption,
heart rate, ventilation, and perceived exertion between the radius of hollow values.
Only one recent conference proceeding has examined the impact of radius of contour on skating performance, specifically during backward crossovers in 10 male players (
Vienneau, Smith, Nigg, & Nigg, Three test blades were examined standard radius of contour, shorter radius of contour, and a combination blade with a shorter radius at the anterior blade and longer radius at the posterior blade. The radius of contour values were not provided. The shorter radius resulted in 2.3% faster task completion times compared to the standard radius, while the combination radius was 3% slower. The shorter radius also had 2% greater plantar forces in the heel, measured using pressure-sensing insoles, than the combination radius. The researchers concluded that the shorter radius of contour improved agility as expected. However, the differences were small, and inferential statistics were not utilized to compare the blades.
In summary, the radius of hollow appears to impact blade ice friction.
This does not necessarily result in improved skating performance in
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Design and Materials in Ice Hockey

typically sharpened skates as skating velocity and acceleration were often similar between blades with a range of normal radius of hollow values.
However, a smaller radius of hollow appears to improve stopping time.
Firmer conclusions cannot be drawn considering only a few studies have been published on this topic. In addition, there is limited research that examined the impact of radius of contour on skating performance, with no studies examining the pivot point Recent Skate Blade Design Innovation
Over the years, modifications have been made to skate blades and skate blade holders. Yet, only a few studies have tested these design changes quantitatively. A flared blade design was created by the company CT
Edge (Vancouver, BC, Canada. This blade flares outward at both edges
(
Fig. 10.5
). This flared blade is hypothesized to provide better grip between the blade ice interface and increase the contact area between
Figure 10.5 An illustration of the shapes of a (A) standard skate blade and a (B)
flared skate blade.
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Materials in Sports Equipment

the blade ice when the blade is vertical (
Federolf, Mills, & Nigg, A study compared the friction coefficients between flared blades and standard blades using an aluminum sled that was supported by three blades
(
Federolf et al., 2008
). The sled was propelled with a hydraulic cylinder,
and the speed was measured at 0, 2, 12, and 14 musing timing gates.
Four blade designs were measured, and they all had the same radius of hollow and contour standard, 4, 6, and 8 degrees flared. The flared blades had lower friction coefficients than that of the standard blades despite being wider and potentially providing greater contact between the blade and ice. The researchers postulated that thinner blades might not lead to lower friction coefficients, as is the traditional view, and that other factors might impact the friction coefficient. Flared and standard blades were also compared in male, varsity ice hockey players (n 12) (
Federolf & Nigg,
2012
). The flared blades were angled at 8 degrees. Acceleration (over first m) and maximum speed were measured on ice during am forward skating task using photocells. Also, the time to complete a glide turn test that consisted of four turns was measured. For the forward skating task the flared blades resulted insignificantly greater acceleration (0.9%) and speed (1.3%); however, the differences were small and not consistent in all players. Likewise, the flared skate blade significantly decreased the time to complete the glide turn test, although the differences were again small. In summary, flared blades might improve gliding by reducing friction and turning by increasing blade ice grip. However, the improved performance is small and inconsistent in players, and thus the impact of the flared blades requires additional research ICE HOCKEY STICK DESIGN
Ice hockey sticks were originally made solely of wood (
Dowbiggin,
2001
). The ice hockey stick is the tool used to control the pucks position and movement while skating, to passing or receiving the puck, to check
(take away) the puck from your opponent, and to propel (shoot) the puck toward the opposing team net to score points. The hockey stick is an extension of the hockey players arm. The stick has to match the player’s size, strength, preferred carrying (and shooting) side, and playing style.
The ice hockey stick has specific features (Fig. 10.6
), including the following. Shaft—the straight, handle portion of the hockey stick. Butt end—the top end of the shaft, toward where the player’s top hand is located.
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Design and Materials in Ice Hockey

3. Blade—(
Fig. A) used for puck control and projection. Its features consist of the toe, heel, and blade curve (pattern)
—referring to the shape of the curve in the blade provided during manufacturing
—
blades are precurved for either a left or right side. Hosel—the neck portion of the lower shaft of a hockey stick, into which the blade is inserted. Lie—the angle between the blade and the shaft. Lie angles are rated on a scale from 4 to 8 (Fig. 10.7
). A no. 5 is a lie angle of 45 degrees.
Each increment up or down corresponds to a change of 1.5 degrees.
Higher numbers indicate a smaller angle between the blade and the shaft.
Several stick dimensions are delimited by regulations (
IIHF, 2015
); for example, maximum stick and blade length as well as blade width and maximum depth of blade curvature. In terms of optimal length when wearing skates a general guide is for the upright hockey stick (toe blade to butt) to extend upward in the range of the chin or slightly below (7.5 cm or 3 in. Blade curves are classified (e.g., heel, mid, or toe curves) based on the location of the origin of the curve when the blade is laid flat on
Maximum length cm (64
″)
Butt
Heel
Heel
Bottom edge
Top edge
Lie angle
Blade twist view
Toe
Toe
Blade maximum length 1/2 (32 cm)
Blade height to 3″
(5.1 to 7.6 cm)
Blade curvature depth (1.5 cm)

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