Part I climatic Conditions in the United States
Chapter 6 Wind and Air Pressure
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Chapter 6 Wind and Air Pressure The difference between high and low pressure across the Earth's surface is the basic driving force that makes the air move. Take as an example the difference in pressure between the centers of the Iceland Low and Azores High during the North Atlantic winter, assessed using the extreme-season maps. This turns out to be about 25 mbar. By determining the distance between the two, which is something like 1,500 mi (2,500 km) one calculates the horizontal gradient of pressure - or how fast pressure changes across the sea surface. In this case, it would be around 1 mbar per 60 mi (100 km). This is a fairly steep gradient and means that the sea-surface wind speed midway between the Azores and Iceland is, on average during the winter, about 16 m/sec or some 56-58 km/hr (35 or 36 mi/hr). A large pressure difference between a high and a low that are close will produce a steep gradient and a strong force to drive the air. A large pressure difference between a high and a low that are close will produce a steep gradient, however, will generate less force. The steeper the gradient, the stronger the wind. The difference between the "head" of air above a high and that above a low drives the air from the high toward the low. This flow will decrease the mass of air in the column above the high, causing pressure to fall, and will increase the mass of air in the region of the low, causing pressure to rise . Although air flows from high-pressure regions toward low-pressure areas, the direction of the flow, or wind, is not straight from one to the other. The Earth's rotation causes the wind to be deflected so that it spirals out of the highs and into the lows The direction of the mean prevailing winds across the Earth's surface in January and July is strongly related to the direction of the isobars. Isobars are graphic representations of this wind on weather maps (Reynolds '05: 61, 62). There are many regional winds too numerous to mention. All are related to the critical location of low and high pressure systems that act to channel the airflow in a particular direction. Local topography can also accentuate its strength by "squeezing" wind between two areas of high ground. In some parts of the world, such as areas of the Mediterranean basin, well-known winds blow over quite restricted areas They occur when the pressure patterns display a particular distribution - like the northerly Mistral that shoots down the Rhone valley in southern France b  etween a slow or stationary low pressure system over, say, central Europe and a high located across Biscay. There are many regional winds around the Mediterranean, including the hot, dry southerly Sirocco whose baking heat comes from its source over the Sahara In contrast, the wintertime northeasterly Bora is associated with the cold, gusty conditions found across the Adriatic shores of the Dinaric Alps. There is also the Santa Ana wind of southern California. This hot, dry, northeasterly blows parchingly over the Los Angeles basin and is frequently linked to the wildfires that are a notorious risk for properties on the upwind flanks of that city (Reynolds '05: 63). In addition to the risk of fires, they are hazardous for drivers and pilots. Desert winds rise in a clock-wise pattern from a high pressure East of the Sierras. Air extends from the mountains and is compressed and warmed, becoming less humid. Winds gust through the canyons at 40 to 60 mph.
Along many of the world's spring and summertime coastlines, cool, "fresh" air, often blows onshore as the sea breeze. Whether or not this occurs depends on the larger-scale weather pattern providing relatively light winds and mainly clear skies over a coastal region. If this is the case, the land surface will heat up quicker than the adjacent sea after sunrise, because water has a more sluggish thermal response to the sun shining on it. Throughout the early morning hours the preferential heating of the land leads to a fall in the barometric pressure there. The pressure over the sea does not fall, however, but it remains relatively high and drives the sea air across the coast toward the low inland. The greatest contrast between the air temperature above the land and sea occurs during the afternoon, with the warmest conditions over land. This means that the strength of the breeze is usually greatest during the afternoon and will decline gradually as the sun goes down. The all-important thermal difference across the coast means that in the tropics sea breezes can generate all year round, while in higher latitudes they are generally only warm season phenomenon. Sea breezes have distinct leading edges that move inland more or less parallel to the coastline, quickest across low-lying areas. The "front' has a lobelike structure whose passage leads frequently to an abrupt fall of temperature (as the sea air is cooler) and increase in humidity (because the sea air is damper). The wind direction can change rapidly too. Often the denser sea air, which may be up to 980 ft (300 m) to 1,300 ft (400 m) deep, scoops up the warmer land air ahead of it to produce a line of cumulus clouds that are organized parallel to the coast. Such clouds can produce showers along this sea breeze "front". After dark, as the land surface cools more rapidly than the sea, the pressure difference switches to drive a gentle land breeze toward the sea through the night. It tends to be light than the daytime sea breeze because the temperature contrast is weaker at night. Under the same large-scale weather conditions as those that permit the genesis of sea and land breezes, broadly similar circulations can occur across the shores of sizable lakes. The US Great Lakes, for example, experience daytime lake breezes during some spring and summer days, as air blows onto the surrounding land across their shores. This can occur over many large lakes or inland seas, such as the Caspian and Black Seas (  Reynolds '05: 64). Ocean Currents Credit: Maricopa.edu The pattern of large-scale ocean surface currents is more or less a mirror of the average wind patterns at the surface. In other words, the sea-surface circulation is essentially wind-driven, although both warm and cold ocean streams do have an important impact on the weather and climate over the sea and across adjacent land areas. The Gulf Stream, the North Atlantic Drift and the Kuro Siwa are all examples of warm water being exported from the tropical boilerhouse and all three have a significant impact on the climates of distant shores. The principal warm ocean current of the southern hemisphere are known as the Brazil and Agulhas Currents. The extensive region of warm water that washes the shores of eastern Australia is also significant. In contrast, the cool Canaries and the California Currents are parts of the grand design to transport cooler water toward the equator for warming. On the way, they influence the weather along the adjacent coastlines dramatically. They do this because when their cool waters are overrun by relatively warmer and damp air, extensive sea fog or low-level layer cloud is formed as the lower atmosphere is chilled. The western flanks of the southern continents are influenced by cold oceanic flows toward the equator in the form of the Peru (or Humboldt), the Benguela and the West Australian Currents. As with the cold California Current, the Humboldt Current is associated with the extensive low cloud and sea fog that occurs along the part of the coasts of Peru and Chile. In comparison to the northern hemisphere's ocean circulation, the southern oceans are markedly cooker, because they are influenced by the cold Antarctic Circumpolar Current at high latitudes (Reynolds '05: 22-23). Pressure is related to the weight of the air above the point at which the measurement is taken. The air is compressed under its own weight, so its density also decreases with height. The annual global mean-sea-level pressure is 1013.2 mbar, which relates to an air density of 1.23 kg/m3. At the top of the Empire State Building in New York, USA, it is typically 53 mbar lower than at sea level; air at the harborside in New York is about 3% denser than the air at the top of the Empire State Building. Going up through the highest peaks leads to thinner and thinner air, down to a density of 0.48 kg/m at the top of Mount Everest, where the average pressure is 315 mbar. Commercial jets normally use cabin pressures between about 850 and 800 mbar, which is about the same as being in the open air between 4,900 and 6,600 ft (1,500 and 2,000m) above sea level . Such jets cruise at a level where the outside pressure is around 250 to 200 mbar because that is where they are most fuel-efficient (Reynolds '05: 10, 11). High pressure areas tend to be associated with dry, settled conditions, whereas low pressure regions relate to the frequent occurrence of cloudy, wet and windy weather. The Iceland Low and Aleutian Low, which occur in the higher latitudes of both the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans respectively are examples of the traveling low-pressure system that run typically from southwest to northeast across these oceans during the winter months. The minimum pressure values mark the point where, on average, the depressions, or cyclones, reach their deepest (lowest). The southwest/northeast alignment of their troughs indicates the mean track of the depressions in the winter. The long term average value across the centers of the Iceland and Aleutian Lows is around 995-1,000 mbar, a few thousand kilometers across The trough that stretches northeastward from the Iceland Low is more extensive than that linked to the Aleutian Low This is largely an expression of how the traveling cyclones are able to penetrate deeply into the Arctic Basin via the broad Norwegian Sea, in contrast to the more limited pole-war excursions across the Bering Strait. In contrast to the maritime lows in the winter hemisphere, the extensive cold continents are marked manly by the presence of very large highs, or anticyclones The centers of these two major features lie deep in the middle-latitude continental interiors of Asia and North America. The most intense is the Asian High, with a long-term value above 1,040 mbar; the center over the United State is less intense than the Asian High (about 1,020-1,025 mbar) but nevertheless, it still has a strong influence on the regional weather. The highs are the products of intense radiative cooling that occurs across these vast land masses in the winter. As with lows, there is no specific value of pressure that defines such a feature as "high" the pressure quoted is simply the maximum value that occurs across an extensive region. Therefore, a high could have a value of, perhaps, 1,055 mbar on a particular day, and 1,015 mbar on another. In addition to the cold continental winter anticyclones, regions of high pressure occur across the subtropical North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. These are the Azores and Hawaiian Highs, which dominate the weather in these regions. They are warmer than their continental counterparts, and deeper, stretching throughout the depth of the troposphere. Cold anticyclones are shallow, recognizable as highs only up to 1 mi (1.5-2 km) above the surface (Reynolds '05: 25, 26).  On the poleward sides of the anticyclones, major warm and moist currents of air move toward the poles as south westerlies and northwesterlies in the North and South Atlantic respectively. Across the British Isles and western Europe, the southwesterly wind direction predominates. This maritime stream of air contrasts strongly with that on the other side of the North Atlantic, which affects Labrador, the Maritime Provinces and the northeastern USA. Here, the prevailing wind direction is northwesterly, between the Iceland Low and the high over the USA. This means that most often the air comes from the cold, dry regions of North America's higher latitudes. In a similar fashion, mild and moist southwesterlies flow toward southern Alaska and western Canada. The situation here differs from that in the northeastern Atlantic because of the Rocky Mountains, which are aligned more or less at right angles to the tracks of the traveling lows. Much of the precipitation from the northeastern Pacific depressions is deposited on the Rockies, to the detriment of the arid high plains to the east. In fact, the dryness of the Plains is related to the presence of the extensive rain-and-snow scavenging mountains to the west. On the contrary, Atlantic depressions can move right across the lower land of northern Europe unimpeded. On the western flank of the Aleutian Low, the predominant flow is from the northwest, from the very cold stretches of Russia and northern China. During the summer in te southern hemisphere, the westerlies blow parallel to the lines of latitude, between the subtropical highs of the South Atlantic, South Indian and South Pacific Oceans and the higher-latitude, low-pressure belt. Winds in the region of Asia are dominated by flow from the wintertime high into the Aleutian low systems . They either blow into the ITCZ as the Northeast Monsoon, or blow toward the Arctic Ocean. Although the North American High is important, it does not dominate such an extensive region (Reynolds '05: 32-34). Polar regions are subjected to seasonal changes of pressure. The Arctic tends to experience a weak high in the winter and a shallow low in the summer. The relatively high elevations throughout the Antarctic mean that reducing the pressure values to sea eve becomes unrealistic and it experiences relatively high pressure throughout the year. The poles are also affected by geography. In the northern hemisphere, the continents widen toward the pole and surround the Arctic Ocean, while in the southern hemisphere, they taper toward the pole, giving way to the circumpolar ocean that surrounds the massive continent of Antarctica. The result of this marked difference is that frontal depressions tend to run due west-east, flanking the Antarctic continent. In contrast, those of the Northern Hemisphere extra-tropical oceans most often track from southwest to northeast in association with the thermal gradients that are aligned in the same way, parallel t the orientation of the coastlines there (Reynolds '05: 27). In middle and high latitudes, the broad continents of the northern hemisphere are intensely cold in the winter. There is an east-west difference, however with their eastern flanks colder than the western. This is true of both Eurasia and North America. The coldest conditions on the east coasts are caused by the prevailing winds, which blow off the cold continents. In contrast, the west coasts experience milder conditions in part because of the tropical maritime air borne by the traveling frontal lows that approach from the ocean. These are complemented by warm ocean currents that stream toward the western coasts. Both the Gulf Stream/North Atlantic Drift and the Kuro Siwo/North Pacific Current are crucial. The tropics experience a very small annual temperature range between the warmest and coolest months, because there is little variation in the amount of solar radiation received throughout the year. This is why the different seasons within the tropics are defined by when it rains, rather than by temperature changes. In contrast, throughout the extratropics, the winter is significantly colder than the summer, so the annual round of warming and cooling is a basic means of defining the seasons (Reynolds '05: 39-41). Moving toward the equator form the subtropical anticyclones reveals a broad area of low-latitude minimum of pressure known as the Equatorial Trough across the intensely heated southern continents of South America, Southern Africa and Australia. The middle-latitude southern ocean is characterized by an elongated circumpolar bet of low pressure, which is virtually unbroken, unlike the northern lows Its presence is a reflection of depressions that travel unimpeded around the open southern ocean, providing the strong westerly winds associated with the Roaring Forties that skirt the Antarctic continent. In contrast, the North Atlantic and Pacific storm tracks run much more southwest/northeast, influenced by the alignment of eastern North American and eastern Asian coastlines in the middle latitudes These depressions feed off the strong thermal contrasts that exist between the continental and oceanic regions in the northern hemisphere: the temperature gradient separating them has the same orientation. These ar warm subtropical anticyclones located over the South Pacific, South Indian and South Atlantic Oceans, which give way northward to the Equatorial Trough. There are no continental highs because these regions are strongly heated in the summer and are characterized by this shallow low-pressure (1,005-1,010 mbar) feature (Reynolds '05: 27).  The centers of low pressure, so marked over the northern oceans in January, are much weaker or barely discernible in July, having shifted pole-ward. The extensive continental anticyclones are now replaced by large-scale low-pressure features. Over Asia, this change is marked by a depression centered across western India and Pakistan. The switch over this continent from extensive high to extensive low pressure is linked to the evolution of the monsoon from its winter to summer phase. The summer hemisphere subtropical highs intensify or become higher. Both exhibit an increase of some 5 mbar and migrate a few degrees of latitude northward As in winter, the east-west continental/oceanic pattern in this hemisphere is caused by the breakup of the major pressure features into very large highs and lows. The Earth-girdling Equatorial Trough, over the continents especially, exhibits a substantial seasonal migration toward the equator. The subtropical anticyclones in the wintertime southern hemisphere form a virtually complete belt, while the circumpolar lows still occur around the Antarctic with noticeable low pressure values (Reynolds '05: 29). The relative locations of the highs and lows in January and July determine the pattern of prevailing winds and thus, in part, the nature of the weather experienced around the Earth. In January, the North and South Atlantic, and their surroundings, are influenced by the important source regions of air: the two subtropical anticyclones. At the surface, the winds flow clockwise out of these in the northern hemisphere, and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere. Parts of these outflows run toward the equator from both highs as the Northeast and Southeast Trades. Together, these culminate in the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The Trades are known for their strength and constancy over the tropical oceans, but they slow dramatically as they converge toward each other and enter the ITCZ. This feature, most noticeable over the oceans, is typified by the infamously light and variable winds of the Doldrums. The Trades exist throughout the year, with marked and important migrations north and south of the ITCZ, particularly over the tropical continents. The ITCZ is also well known for very strong ascent caused by the surface convergence of the hot humid Trades; this shows up as cloud clusters that produce many thunderstorms. The disastrous droughts that occur occasionally across parts of Ethiopia or Sudan can be related to the ITCZ's failure to spread far enough north, or a lack of activity in terms of the deep convective clouds that produce the life-giving downpours. On the eastern and western flanks of the subtropical anticyclones the air flows generally parallel to the adjacent coasts but also penetrates into the southern continents to supply the ITCZ (Reynolds '05: 29-32). Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone T E  ach hemisphere displays three distinct types of vertical air circulation, known as cells. The deepest, most powerful and most extensive is the Hadley, or tropical cell. It generally comprises very vigorous, tropical thunderstorms (known as "hot towers") associated with the low level convergence of warm, moisture-laden air in the ITCZ. Flow from the top of this thundery zone, in the upper troposphere, toward both poles. This air gradually cools as it moves poleward and, at around 30°N and 30°S, sinks through the troposphere. Surface return flows from subtropical highs toward the ITCZ as the Northeast and Southeast Trade Winds. Much weaker than the Hadley cell, the Ferrel, or middle latitude cell is comprised of low-level currents of air that flow poleward form the subtropical highs. A region of rising air, at around 50°-60°N and 50°-60°S, represented by the large-scale rise of the warm, moist air in frontal depressions. These common frontal depressions are the major source of precipitation for middle and higher latitude areas of the world, for example over much of western Europe the southern Andes and South Island, new Zealand. A return flow in the upper troposphere that heads toward the upper outflow from the ITCZ. These two flows converge above the subtropical highs, and are matched by the two currents that diverge directly below them at the surface. The final component of vertical air circulation is the weak Polar cell It sinks gently in the highest latitudes, associated with surface highs. Surface flow toward the equator, some of which ultimately undercuts the warm-sector tropical maritime air in the frontal zone. This forms the leading edge of the polar air behind a cold front. A weak return flow from above the frontal depressions toward the poles (Reynolds '05: 37-39). Air Circulation Cells El Niño and La Niña together, make up the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). A La Nina event involves abnormally cool water in the equatorial Pacific, while El Niño occurs when the water is warmer than average. The recent results of the 20 computer models showed that surface temperatures in the equatorial eastern Pacific could rise above 28 degrees Celsius more frequently. At that temperature, an extreme El Niño event can be triggered. Intense El Niño periods could double in frequency as the Earth’s average temperature continues to rise, warned an international team of atmospheric scientists and oceanographers. The researchers forecast higher warming of the eastern Pacific Ocean near the equator, relative to surrounding waters, based on 20 computerized models of the planet. Extreme El Niño events may cause deluges in the United States and Peru, yet leave the other side of the Pacific deathly dry. The 1982-1983 El Niño caused disastrous flooding in Peru. Yet the same event resulted in droughts in Indonesia and Australia. The ’82-’83 event also hurt marine life and people dependent upon that life. The warm surface waters of El Niño cut off the circulation of cold, nutrient rich water from deeper in the Pacific. The lack of deep-water nutrients knocked out the base of the marine food chain and thereby starved both fish and fishermen. During the 1997-1998 El Niño, torrential rains flooded California and caused disastrous mudslides (Wall '14). The equatorial Pacific not only experiences el Niño however; on occasion the South Oscillation (SO) index can experience its antithesis known as la Niña. During la Niña the central and eastern tropical Pacific waters tend to become much cooler than average. La Niña is also linked to generally cooler than average surface land temperatures across the tropics and subtropics in Asia. High pressure and temperature develop around the San Joaquin Valley in California There is also evidence of increased tropical storm activity in the North Atlantic during la Niña and decreased activity during el Niño. Relatively wet weather occurs across large areas of Indonesia, Australia and southern Africa, while lower than average rainfall is observed over southern Brazil, Uruguay, northern Argentina and east Africa. The North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) is a phenomenon that is essentially a "see-saw" in mass exchange between the North Atlantic's Azores High and Iceland Low during the winter season. A negative NAO index means much weaker than average flows across the Atlantic toward Europe, and cooler winters across much of that continent. A positive NAO index occurs when there is a large pressure difference between the Azores and Iceland; such a steep gradient is associate with stronger westerly flow into Europe and generally more vigorous starveling lows. It is linked to milder, wetter than average winters over much of Europe and also to cooler than average conditions across comparable eastern North American latitudes (Reynolds '05: 54, 27, 28). El Niño is associated with an atmospheric phenomenon known as the Southern Oscillation (SO). Pressure is normally high over the southeast Pacific and low in the western equatorial Pacific. The horizontal gradient of pressure between these two centers leads to the presence of the easterly (westward-blowing) Trade Winds During such times, the SO is said to be in its High Index. Sometimes, however, the barometer falls over a period of months across the southeastern Pacific and, when this happens, it rises simultaneously in the western Pacific. This change leads to a weakening of the pressure gradient, together with a weakening - or even a reversal - of the Trades . This is known as the Low Index of the SO. During such phases there are droughts in Australia, Indonesia, India and parts of Africa. In addition winters tended to be unusually warm in western Canada. Furthermore, the desert islands in the middle equatorial Pacific suffer persistent and torrential rains. SO and el Niño are both parts of the same phenomenon known collectively as ENSO. During normal, or average years, the easterly winds that blow along the equator and the southeasterlies that blow along the coast of Ecuador and Peru, drag surface water along with them. The rotation of the Earth deflects this water to the right of the flow in the northern hemisphere, and to the left in the southern. This means that water is driven away from the equator in both hemispheres and also from the Peru-Ecuador coastline. Cold, nutrient-rich water wells up from below to replace it, forming narrow zones of equatorial and coastal upwelling less than 90 mi (50 km) wide. Normal conditions are marked by cool temperatures over the eastern Pacific and a warm maximum over the equatorial western Pacific. This western area is so warm that very deep convective cloud and heavy rainfall are a hallmark. Part of the huge volume of air that ascends to great height within these clouds - as high as the upper troposphere - moves eastward at these levels and sinks in depth across the eastern Pacific. This vertical circulation is called Walker cell. A number of these cells exist around the equator, connecting wet and dry regions. The descending portions of such cells are characterized by very dry and often cloud-free weather (Reynolds '05: 47-49).  Within the ocean there is a layer with a depth of 330 ft (100 m) or so, through which the water temperature drops rapidly. Known as the thermocline, it separates the upper warmer zone from the much colder deeper reaches. Normally, the thermocline is near the surface in the eastern equatorial Pacific, some 160 ft (50 m) down, and it slopes gently down toward the western side, where it is found at a depth of about 660 ft (200 m). If there were no wind stress on the surface of the ocean, the thermocline would be nearly horizontal. In this region, however, the persistent Trades drive water westward, lifting the thermocline toward the surface in the east, and depressing it in the west. The fact that the westward-driven surface water is steadily warmed by sunshine and, therefore, is lower density means that the surface of the sea slopes up toward the western equatorial Pacific. When the Trades are blowing at their strongest, the sea level in the western basin is over 1.6 ft (0.5 m) higher than in the east. This very broad, flattened mound of warm water occurs around Indonesia and New Guinea. As the SO index gradually moves to a low-value phase, when the Tahiti/Darwin difference is small, the relaxation in the normally strong Trades leads to the thermocline becoming less tilted. It drops by more than 330 ft (100m) in the east and cuts off the cool, upwelled water from the Ecuador/Peru coastal zone. Thus, the sea level flattens out along the equator, falling in the west and rising in the east. In association with this, the warm surface water flows eastward as a long, low wave known as a Kelvin wave, reaching South America a few months later, where it turns north and south along the coast. This leads to an increase in sea level and the migration of fish. The northward branch of warm water influences marine life as far north as Vancouver, Canada. The eastward migration of the warm water across the equatorial Pacific causes the air above it to become moist and warm. It also gains sufficient buoyancy to produce massive convective cloud and torrential rain in regions that otherwise are persistently arid (Reynolds '05: 49, 50). During el Niño, the warm surface water flows east along the equator, bringing thunderstorms. The classic el Niño conditions include unusually high rainfall across the central equatorial ocean, as well as unusually dry conditions over the western sector, including northern South America, eastern Australia and over Indonesia. This distinct pattern is due to the fact that one portion of the enormous upward movement of air in the displaced convective region subsides over the western Pacific. After the Kelvin wave has left the western Pacific, the warm water layer thins substantially and mixes with cooler water This cooling leads to less evaporation and a more stable atmosphere, which together mean less rain. The eastern half of Australia and a of Indonesia, therefore, are susceptible to drought during a marked el Niño. There are other typical thermal and precipitation anomalies associated with a strong el Niño. The period from June to August that follows the evolution of the el Niño tends to be characterized by drier than average conditions around Indonesia, Australia and the Fijian Islands. Drought is a risk across the northern part of South America and the southern Caribbean too - and there is evidence that the Indian monsoon may be drier. Dry conditions stretch from Sumatra and southern Malaysia to the Hawaiian Islands in the north, and the Fijian Islands in the south. Additionally, drought is a high risk for eastern equatorial South America and southeastern Africa. Abnormally wet conditions occur over Ecuador, Peru, southern Brazil, Uruguay, northern Argentina, southern USA and equatorial east Africa. Warmer than average winter conditions are often experienced from Alaska to the Canadian Rockies, in parts of southeastern Canada and northeastern USA and around Japan. The equatorial Pacific not only experiences el Niño however; on occasion it can experience its antithesis known as la Niña. During la Niña the central and eastern tropical Pacific waters tend to become much cooler than average. La Niña is also linked to generally cooler than average surface land temperatures across the tropics and subtropics. There is also evidence of increased tropical storm activity in the North Atlantic during la Niña and decreased activity during el Niño. Relatively wet weather occurs across large areas of Indonesia, Australia and southern Africa, while lower than average rainfall is observed over southern Brazil, Uruguay, northern Argentina and east Africa (Reynolds '05: 50-52, 54). Download 497.74 Kb. Share with your friends:
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