Perioperative nutritional

intractable postprandial symptoms associated with

endogenous hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia. This complication,

believed to be attributable to the RYGB

anatomy, in some patients has necessitated partial pancreatectomy

for relief of the symptoms and hypoglycemia.

Pathologic examination has shown pancreatic islet cell

hyperplasia. This complication may manifest from 2 to 9

years after RYGB (554 [EL 3]). Patients who present with

postprandial symptoms of hypoglycemia, particularly neuroglycopenic

symptoms, after RYGB should undergo further

evaluation for the possibility of insulin-mediated

hypoglycemia.

meat products. Intake of alternative protein sources should

be encouraged, although meals have been reported to

remain deficient in protein for a year after bariatric surgery

(515 [EL 3], 543 [EL 3], 555 [EL 3]). The use of protein

supplements has been proposed but is not practiced universally

(515 [EL 3], 556 [EL 3]). Continuous reinforcement

of new nutritional habits will help minimize the

frequency of bothersome gastrointestinal symptoms.

Professional guidance remains important to optimize

nutritional intake in patients who have had a malabsorptive

procedure because of the risk for clinically important

nutritional deficiencies (140 [EL 4]).
Chronic vomiting, generally described by the patient

as “spitting up” or “the food getting stuck,” can occur.

One-third to two-thirds of patients report postoperative

vomiting (346 [EL 3], 363 [EL 3], 543 [EL 3]). Vomiting

is thought to occur most commonly during the first few

postoperative months (557 [EL 3]), during which time the

patients are adapting to a small gastric pouch. This vomiting

is not believed to be a purging behavior as seen with

bulimia nervosa. Instead, patients may vomit in response

to intolerable foods or in an effort to clear food that has

become lodged in the upper digestive track. Frequent

vomiting that persists longer than 6 months may suggest

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contrast study, before any endoscopic procedure in

patients with LAGB; (2) reflux, inflammation, stomal erosion

or ulceration, or stenosis, necessitating endoscopy; or

(3) gastric dysmotility, necessitating a radionuclide gastric-

emptying study. Regurgitation that occurs after a

LAGB procedure can be managed with appropriate band

adjustments and nutritional advice.

After RYGB, supplementation with a multivitamin-

mineral preparation, iron, vitamin B12, and calcium with

vitamin D is common (471 [EL 4], 515 [EL 3], 558 [EL

3], 559 [EL 3]). Best practice guidelines published recently

recommend a daily multivitamin and calcium supplementation

with added vitamin D for all patients who have

had a weight loss surgical procedure (560 [EL 4]). After

BPD or BPD/DS, routine supplementation regimens recommended

include a multivitamin-mineral preparation,

iron, vitamin B12, calcium, and fat-soluble vitamins (471

[EL 4], 515 [EL 3], 558 [EL 3]).
The multivitamin-mineral preparations used should

have the recommended daily requirements for vitamins

and minerals. Initially, 1 to 2 tablets of a chewable preparation

are advised because they are better tolerated after

malabsorptive procedures. Alternatively, however,

nonchewable preparations or products with fortified

amounts of folic acid and iron, such as prenatal vitamins,

can be used. Regardless of the preparation, multivitamin

supplements providing 800 to 1,000 .g/d of folate can

effectively prevent the development of folate deficiency

after RYGB (515 [EL 3], 545 [EL 3], 561 [EL 2]). More

recent studies suggest that folic acid deficiency is uncommon

(involving only 10% to 35%) after RYGB and BPD

or BPD/DS despite the absence of folic acid supplementation

(562 [EL 3]). This finding suggests that the intake of

folic acid is often sufficient to prevent folic acid deficiency.

Recent guidelines recommend regular use of iron supplements

for patients at risk of iron or folic acid deficiency

(560 [EL 4]).
With multiple nutrient deficiencies, specific diagnosis

and treatment become difficult. One condition thought to

be due to multiple nutritional factors is “acute post-gastric

reduction surgery neuropathy” (563 [EL 3], 564 [EL 3]).

This complication of bariatric surgery is characterized by

vomiting, weakness, hyporeflexia, pain, numbness, incontinence,

visual loss, hearing loss, attention loss, memory

loss, nystagmus, and severe proximal symmetric weakness

of the lower extremities (563 [EL 3], 564 [EL 3]).

Because all symptoms may not be ameliorated with thiamine

treatment alone, additional nutritional deficiencies

may be involved in the underlying cause.

Protein

and

Protein-deficient meals are common after RYGB.

This is generally noted at 3 to 6 months after bariatric

surgery and is largely attributed to the development of

intolerance of protein-rich foods (540 [EL 4]). Seventeen

percent of patients experience persistent intolerance of

less than 50% of that recommended (540 [EL 4]).

Fortunately, most food intolerances diminish by 1 year

postoperatively (540 [EL 4]). Even patients who experience

complete resolution of food intolerances often do not

meet the daily recommended intake of protein. Regular

assessment of nutritional intake should be performed, and

supplementation with protein modular sources should be

pursued if protein intake remains below 60 g daily (540

[EL 4]). Nevertheless, hypoalbuminemia is rare after a

standard RYGB.
Protein malnutrition remains the most severe

macronutrient complication associated with malabsorptive

surgical procedures. It is seen in 13% of superobese

patients 2 years after a distal RYGB with a Roux limb

3], 562 [EL 3]), as well as in 3% to 18% of patients after

BPD (208 [EL 2], 211 [EL 3], 453 [EL 4], 471 [EL 4],

547 [EL 3], 565 [EL 3]). Other studies have found only a

0% to 6% incidence of protein deficiency after RYGB up

to 43 months postoperatively (190 [EL 2], 545 [EL 3],

566 [EL 3]). Prevention involves regular assessment of

protein intake and encouraging the ingestion of protein-

rich foods (>60 g/d) and use of modular protein supplements.

Nutritional support with PN for at least 3 to 4

weeks may be required after BPD/DS but rarely after

RYGB (515 [EL 3]). If a patient remains dependent on

PN, then surgical revision and lengthening of the common

channel to decrease malabsorption would be warranted

(125 [EL 3], 453 [EL 4], 567 [EL 3]).
9.10.2.3.

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mineral

including

nephrolithiasis

At present, there are no conclusive data regarding the

association of altered calcium and vitamin D homeostasis

with LAGB surgery. In 2 reports, LAGB was not associated

with significant reduction in bone mineral density

(BMD) (568 [EL 3], 569 [EL 2]).

occur in patients who have undergone RYGB (515 [EL 3],

559 [EL 3], 570 [EL 3], 571 [EL 3], 572 [EL 2]). The

onset is insidious and results from a decrease in the intake

of calcium-rich foods, bypass of the duodenum and proximal

jejunum where calcium is preferentially absorbed,

and malabsorption of vitamin D (515 [EL 3], 559 [EL 3],

570 [EL 3], 573 [EL 4]). An increase in serum intact PTH

level is indicative of negative calcium balance or a vitamin

D deficiency (or both), although PTH is also required for

bone mineralization. Elevations of bone-specific alkaline

phosphatase and osteocalcin levels, which are indicative

of increased osteoblastic activity and bone formation, are

often the initial abnormalities (559 [EL 3], 570 [EL 3]).

Thus, measurement of bone turnover markers has been

proposed as a useful screening technique for metabolic

bone disease after RYGB because serum calcium and

phosphorus levels are often normal (515 [EL 3], 559 [EL

3], 570 [EL 3], 573 [EL 4], 574 [EL 3]). After gastric

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restrictive procedures, urinary C-telopeptide levels,

[EL 3]). After LAGB or RYGB, increased bone resorption

with prolonged immobilization, especially in association

with critical illness, might be associated with hypercalciuria

and, if renal calcium excretion is impaired, frank

hypercalcemia (575 [EL 3]). Rapid and extreme weight

loss is associated with bone loss (576 [EL 2], 577 [EL 3],

578 [EL 3]), even in the presence of normal vitamin D and

PTH levels (574 [EL 3]). This observation supports the

claim that nutritional or hormonal factors are not the only

causes of bone loss. Other factors, such as decreased

weight-bearing activity, also contribute to bone loss and

can be estimated with N-or C-telopeptide levels (574 [EL

3]). One interesting model of bone remodeling involves

leptin-dependent sympathetic innervation of bone formation

by means of activation of peripheral clock genes (579

[EL 4]).
After a malabsorptive bariatric procedure, patients

might have continued secondary hyperparathyroidism,

low 25-OHD levels, increased 1,25-(OH)2D levels, and

hypocalciuria (570 [EL 3], 571 [EL 3], 572 [EL 2], 574

[EL 3], 580 [EL 3], 581 [EL 2]). Left uncorrected, secondary

hyperparathyroidism will promote bone loss and

increase the risk for osteopenia and osteoporosis (571 [EL

3]). The presence of hypocalcemia in the setting of a vitamin

D deficiency exacerbates mineralization defects and

accelerates the development of osteomalacia (582 [EL 4]).

patients were found to have secondary hyperparathyroidism

and 0.9% had hypocalcemia beyond the third

postoperative month after RYGB. Parada et al (584 [EL

3]) reported that 53% of patients had secondary hyperparathyroidism

after RYGB. Also after RYGB, Youssef et

al (585 [EL 2]) found that patients had a greater degree of

secondary hyperparathyroidism and vitamin D deficiency

with longer Roux limb length. After BPD/DS, up to one-

third of patients will have deficiencies in fat-soluble vitamins

including vitamin D (586 [EL 3], 587 [EL 3]). Up to

50% will have frank hypocalcemia, which is associated

with secondary hyperparathyroidism and vitamin D deficiency.

In an early study by Compston et al (546 [EL 3]), 30

of 41 patients (73%) studied 1 to 5 years after BPD

demonstrated defective bone mineralization, decreased

bone formation rate, increased bone resorption, or some

combination of these findings. Of the 41 patients, 9 (22%)

had hypocalcemia, but none had low 25-OHD levels (546

[EL 3]). Reidt et al (588 [EL 3]) found that women who

had undergone RYGB had decreased estradiol-and vitamin

D-dependent intestinal calcium absorption. This disorder

was associated with increased N-telopeptide (marker

of bone resorption), increased osteocalcin (marker of bone

formation), or an “uncoupling” effect on bone remodeling

(588 [EL 3]).

of metabolic bone disease with standard BPD and a

levels. Thus, bone loss at the hip after BPD may be

predominantly due to protein malnutrition (547 [EL 3]). In

a series of 230 patients who underwent RYGB, Johnson et

al (589 [EL 2]) found that, at 1 year postoperatively, the

radius BMD was increased by 1.85% and the lumbar spine

and hip BMD was decreased by 4.53% and 9.27%, respectively.

Of interest, no further bone loss was noted by 2

years postoperatively (589 [EL 2]). Calcium balance may

be only one of many components for maintaining bone

mass after bariatric surgery, inasmuch as aggressive calcium

and vitamin D supplementation resulting in normal

PTH levels will still be associated with abnormal bone

turnover markers and decreased bone mass (572 [EL 2]).

Overall, after a malabsorptive bariatric procedure, a calcium

deficiency develops in 10% to 25% of patients by 2

years and in 25% to 48% by 4 years; moreover, a vitamin

D deficiency develops in 17% to 52% of patients by 2

years and in 50% to 63% by 4 years (72 [EL 3], 208 [EL

2], 221 [EL 4], 466 [EL 3], 586 [EL 3], 587 [EL 3]).

Increased awareness regarding the prevalence of metabolic

bone disease after malabsorptive procedures has led to

routine recommendation of calcium supplementation (193

[EL 2], 411 [EL 4], 453 [EL 4], 515 [EL 3]).

calcium containing vitamin D range from 1,200 to

2,000 mg daily (453 [EL 4], 515 [EL 3], 545 [EL 3], 588

[EL 3], 590 [EL 4]). Calcium carbonate preparations are

readily available in chewable forms and are better tolerated

than tablets shortly after bariatric surgery. Patients,

however, must be instructed to take calcium carbonate

preparations with meals in order to enhance intestinal

absorption. Calcium citrate preparations are preferred

because this salt is absorbed in the absence of gastric acid

production but require consumption of more tablets (581

[EL 2], 591 [EL 4], 592 [EL 4]). Vitamin D deficiency

and bone mineralization defects result from decreased

exposure to sunlight, maldigestion, impaired mixing of

pancreatic and biliary secretions, and decreased vitamin D

absorption in the proximal small bowel (471 [EL 4], 559

[EL 3], 570 [EL 3], 593 [EL 4], 594 [EL 3], 595 [EL 2]).

Vitamin D supplementation can be provided with ergocalciferol,

50,000 IU one to three times per week, although in

severe cases of vitamin D malabsorption, dosing as high as

50,000 IU one to three times daily may be necessary. In

the setting of significant malabsorption unresponsive to

the foregoing measures, parenteral vitamin D supplementation

can be used. A common regimen consists of weekly

intramuscular injections of ergocalciferol, 100,000 IU,

until 25-OHD levels normalize. Intramuscular vitamin D

preparations are difficult to locate, may require a pharmacist

to compound the medication, and can be uncomfortable

when injected. Calcitriol [1,25-(OH)2D] therapy is

generally unnecessary and increases the risk of hypercalcemia

and hyperphosphatemia. Intravenous (0.25 to 0.5

.g/d) or oral (0.25 to 1.0 .g once or twice daily) calcitriol

therapy has been used in situations characterized by

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(596 [EL 3]). In asymptomatic patients, however,

when 25-OHD fails to reach optimal levels (25-OHD >30

ng/mL), functionally normalize 1,25-(OH)2D levels, and

suppress elevated PTH levels, the use of calcitriol is

unproved.

been achieved when levels for serum calcium, bone-specific

alkaline phosphatase or osteocalcin, and 25-OHD as

well as 24-hour urinary calcium excretion rates are normal.

Serum PTH levels may persist above the normal

range even with functionally replete vitamin D levels (25OHD

>30 ng/mL). This scenario can raise the specter of

primary hyperparathyroidism when inappropriately elevated

PTH levels accompany elevated serum calcium levels.

After BPD or BPD/DS, supplementation with elemental

calcium, 2,000 mg/d, and vitamin D as outlined in

the foregoing material usually corrects deficiencies in calcium

and vitamin D metabolism, corrects deterioration in

BMD, and improves osteoid volume and thickness without

osteomalacia (547 [EL 3]). Nutritional status remains

important in the prevention of metabolic bone disease; a

low serum albumin level is a strong predictor of bone loss

and metabolic bone disease after BPD or BPD/DS (597

[EL 2]).
Routine postoperative monitoring of bone metabolism

and mineral homeostasis in patients who have undergone

a malabsorptive procedure is summarized in Table
15. There are several clinical challenges in the management

of metabolic bone disease in these patients: (1) intolerance

of calcium supplements, (2) induction of

hypercalciuria and precipitation of nephrocalcinosis and

nephrolithiasis, (3) avoidance of vitamin A oversupplementation,

which can increase bone resorption, and (4)

inability to absorb orally administered medications and

nutritional supplements. Moreover, recalcitrant protein,

vitamin K, and copper deficiencies can impair recovery of

bone physiologic processes.

The presence of malabsorption raises the possibility

that usual dosing of orally administered bisphosphonates

(ibandronate 150 mg monthly, alendronate 70 mg weekly,

and either risedronate 35 mg weekly or risedronate 75 mg

daily for 2 consecutive days, once a month) cannot

achieve sufficient blood levels for a therapeutic effect. In

one study involving non-bariatric surgery patients, rised ronate

was absorbed in the small bowel regardless of the

site of exposure (598 [EL 3]). It is not known whether

orally administered bisphosphonates actually increase the

risk of gastric ulceration in bariatric surgery patients, but

risedronate has been associated with fewer endoscopically

discovered gastric erosions than alendronate (599 [EL 3]).

Therefore, the use of newer intravenously administered

bisphosphonates has received considerable attention in

postoperative bariatric patients. Intravenously administered

pamidronate has successfully managed resorptive

hypercalcemia in patients who have undergone bariatric

and Drug Administration for osteoporosis prevention or

treatment. Pamidronate, 90 mg, is given by continuous

intravenous infusion during a 4-hour period up to once

every 3 months in non-bariatric surgery patients with

osteoporosis and may cause a low-grade fever as well as

muscle and joint pain. Zoledronate, 5 mg, is given intravenously

during a 1-hour period up to once a year in nonbariatric

surgery patients with osteoporosis and may cause

similar adverse events. Intravenously administered ibandronate,

3 mg every 3 months, has recently become

approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for the

treatment of osteoporosis and confers far less risk for renal

insufficiency than pamidronate or zoledronate (600 [EL

4]). Care must be exercised to ensure that vitamin D deficiency

after gastric bypass is corrected before administration

of bisphosphonates to avoid severe hypocalcemia,

hypophosphatemia, and osteomalacia (601 [EL 3], 602

[EL 3]). Even with vitamin D sufficiency, a bypassed

small bowel may not be capable of absorbing adequate

calcium to offset the effects of bisphosphonate binding to

bone matrix. Overall, there are no published clinical trial

data regarding use of bisphosphonates in bariatric surgery

patients.

patients who have had malabsorptive procedures are at

risk for oxalosis and renal oxalate stones. Impaired binding

of oxalate in the small bowel allows greater oxalate

absorption in the colon, contributing to excessive excretion

of oxalates by the kidneys. Dehydration also has a

role as a result of restrictions imposed on amount and timing

of fluid intake after gastric restrictive procedures.

Treatment of this problem consists of low-oxalate meals,

appropriate oral calcium supplementation, and orally

administered potassium citrate. Increasing the urinary calcium

too high with orally administered calcium and vitamin

D supplementation, intended to reduce secondary

hyperparathyroidism and treat presumed osteomalacia,

can exacerbate calcium oxalate stone formation. Clinical

studies have demonstrated an association of O

formigenes

colonization of the small bowel, or administration as a

probiotic therapy, with decreased urinary oxalate excretion

and stone formation (603 [EL 4], 604 [EL 3], 605

[EL 3]).
Magnesium is readily available from plant and animal

sources and is absorbed throughout the entire small bowel

independent of vitamin D. Hypomagnesemia can be associated

with neuromuscular, intestinal, and cardiovascular

symptoms and abnormalities in secretion of PTH.

Hypomagnesemia has been reported after bariatric procedures,

such as jejunoileal bypass and BPD, and usually

occurs in the setting of persistent diarrhea (208 [EL 2]).

Empiric supplementation with a mineral-containing multivitamin

providing the daily recommended intake of magnesium

(>300 mg in women; >400 mg in men) should

prevent magnesium deficiency in the absence of complicating

factors. In the setting of symptomatic and severe

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magnesium deficiency, supplementation should be dictated