Published as: Sugrue, B. & Clark, R. E. (2000), Media Selection for Training. In S. Tobias & D. Fletcher (Eds.), Training & Retraining: a handbook for Business, Industry, Government and the Military. New York: Macmillan

If we categorize non-linear structuring of and access to information as media attributes, then we should be able to identify an instructional method or methods those attributes can deliver. Two different instructional methods have been linked to the non-linear structure and access attributes of hypermedia. Spiro et al. (1992) suggested that having learners explore the same units of information from multiple perspectives induces the acquisition of a denser, more flexible network of knowledge about that particular domain. Thus, the instructional method facilitated by hypermedia might be support for acquisition of dense, flexible knowledge. The media attribute that facilitates delivery of this method is non-linear access. Another instructional method facilitated by hypermedia, according to Jonassen and Wang (1993), is support for acquisition of expert-like knowledge structures. By structuring information in a set of hyperlinks that reflect the semantic network of experts, learners are likely to internalize a similar semantic network.

The Cognition and Technology Group (1990, 1993) have used interactive video as a means to deliver anchored instruction, facilitating learners' acquisition of knowledge that is situated in contexts similar to those in which they will be expected to use that knowledge. The interactive video portions of their programs, for example, the Jasper Woodbury mathematics series, could be delivered in other media. The critical media attribute in this case is the ability to present scenarios or problems in a realistic situation. The goal-based scenarios employed extensively in Andersen Consulting's training programs were adopted as a non-media-specific approach (Campbell & Monson, 1994; Schank, 1994); however, Andersen Consulting is increasingly using multimedia environments as an efficient way to combine the attributes necessary to present realistic scenarios, provide on-line informational resources, and to monitor and coach trainees when necessary.

Before outlining a media selection model where media attributes are linked to separate components of training, we will first consider how existing media selection models advocate matching their lists of media options to tasks, trainees, and instructional events. Figure 2 summarizes the main characteristics of existing media selection models and the limitations of the models.

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Insert Figure 2 here

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Matching media to task types. Many media selection models, for example, Reynolds and Anderson (1991), and AT&T (1987), advocate matching media to Bloom's (1956) three-way categorization of learning tasks: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. However, the distinction is not sustained in the flowcharts and diagrams to guide the decision-making process, giving the impression that task differences make no difference to the kinds of media that could be used to train them. Flowcharts, diagrams and checklists, which accompany the models, focus on matching media to instructional requirements of tasks in general, requirements such as the need for interaction or motion visuals. No guidance is given on what might lead one to decide that a particular task requires the use of motion or still visuals. This is not surprising given the inconsistency of research on the effects of different types of presentation on learning (Wetzel, Radtke, & Stern, 1994), and the fact that most studies do not examine the differential effects of different media or presentation modes on different types of learning outcome.

Recent research (for example, Mayer & Sims, 1994; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995) indicates that it is the manner in which types or modes of presentation are combined (and not the mere presence or absence of a particular mode) that influences cognitive load and processing during the encoding of information. For example, presenting the commentary on a diagram in auditory mode rather than in text beside the diagram seems to reduce the load on working memory (Mousavi et al., 1995). Mayer and Sims suggest that concurrent presentation of two representations facilitates the making of more referential connections between the visual and the verbal representation, which in turn facilitates transfer. This dual-coding theory is not dependent on task type.

In general, there is little empirical evidence that any particular type of information is absolutely necessary for the learning of any task. For example, it is not clear if is it necessary to see a real demonstration of a procedure; a stylized sequence of still images might be enough to convey the nature and sequence of the steps to a trainee. A trainee may be able to fill in the gaps and attempt to do the procedure after seeing only the still images, or possibly having seen only a verbal description of the steps. In fact, less complete representations may induce deeper cognitive processing.

Theories of situated cognition would suggest that the greater the authenticity of the context in which a trainee practices the skills being learned, the greater the potential for transfer (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). However, the extent to which a practice activity should have physical and functional fidelity to the real situation is unclear (Alessi, 1988). In the first stage of learning a skill, that is, the stage of controlled processing (Fitts & Posner, 1967; Ackerman, 1989), less fidelity may facilitate the construction of appropriate procedures for task performance. During the second stage of skill learning, where sequences of actions and decisions become associated with task stimulus conditions, greater fidelity may aid transfer of the procedures (Anderson et al., 1992). Thus, it may be that media attributes need to be selected to match different stages of learning (regardless of task type) rather than to different types of task.

Reiser and Gagne (1983) suggested matching media to Gagne's five categories of learning task: verbal information, intellectual skills, psychomotor skills, cognitive strategies, and attitudes. However, Reiser and Gagne's specific recommendations for media were related not to five task types but to a two-way distinction between tasks that require a trainee to learn to do something (intellectual, psychomotor and cognitive strategy objectives), and tasks whose objectives are that the trainee should be able to state or believe something (verbal information or attitude objectives). This two-way categorization of tasks is similar to the distinction between declarative and procedural knowledge (Anderson, 1993). Declarative knowledge can be thought of as knowledge “about” things or knowledge “that” something is the case. Declarative knowledge helps one answer “what” and “why” questions. Procedural knowledge is knowledge that links goals to conditions and actions for achieving the goals. Procedural knowledge helps one take actions and make decisions in particular situations.

According to Reiser and Gagne, tasks with "do something" objectives require media that permit precise corrective feedback. Reiser and Gagne listed portable equipment, simulations, computers, programmed texts, and interactive TV as media appropriate for training intellectual and motor skills. They recommended motion picture, slide/tape, TV, filmstrip, printed text, surface layouts, models, mockups, and audio as media suitable for training attitudes and verbal information. Reiser and Gagne assumed that the learning of verbal information (or declarative knowledge) did not require monitoring and precise feedback; thus, a medium that could deliver information only would be sufficient.

In contrast, we would suggest that all tasks require information presentation and practice, and that media selection decisions should be based on the type of information and practice a particular task requires. For example, if the task being trained is how to operate a piece of machinery, then some medium will be needed to provide information on how to operate the machine. In addition, either the machine itself or a computerized simulation of the machine will be required for practice, and some medium will be needed to provide feedback during or after the practice. If the task being trained involves stating reasons why a customer should purchase a particular item, then a medium that can provide information about the reasons, and a medium that can facilitate and monitor the practice of communicating these reasons to customers will be needed. Thus, a simple classification of tasks as “doing” versus “stating” does not lead to clear media choices.

Considering each task separately is preferable to classifying the task in order to narrow media choices. Some tasks may have elements that involve using particular senses (i.e., touch, hearing, sight, taste, or smell). For example, when troubleshooting a problem in a car engine, one may have to distinguish among different sounds that might come from the engine; therefore, a medium capable of reproducing those sounds may be required during information presentation and during practice to facilitate transfer to the real situation. On the other hand, if the task requires a trainee to handle customer complaints in a telephone company, it may not be necessary to present visual and auditory representations of the customer. The text of the customer's verbal responses may be substituted during both demonstration and practice. Thus, the range of media for presenting information and providing opportunity to practice is extended for this particular task.

Cantor (1988), like Reiser and Gagne, recommended matching media to the prior knowledge and processing resources of trainees. Cantor suggested that learners with low prior knowledge and/or processing resources require more graphical presentation of information and concrete illustrations. We are not aware of any research to support such a specific recommendation. Research suggest that lower ability students benefit from greater elaboration of information during instruction, and such elaboration can take a number of forms (Mayer, 1980; Wetzel, Radtke, & Stern, 1994).

Romiszowski (1988) proposed a long list of individual differences that should influence media selection. In addition to "experience with the topic", he included IQ, motivation, ability to learn from verbal or visual material, mechanical ability, preferences for visual versus verbal information, understanding of particular symbolic language, attention span, and physical disabilities as trainee characteristics that may restrict media choices. From that list, physical disabilities are the only learner characteristics that clearly limit the choice of media. The other variables relate to cognitive and affective differences among learners. The interactions between these "aptitude" variables and any instructional variables are extremely complex, and few, if any, are media-specific. For example, learners with lower general ability learn more in structured learning environments because such environments have been found to reduce the cognitive-processing burden on the learner (Snow, 1994). However, structure can be provided in any medium.

Romiszowski (1988) acknowledged that we do not know enough to make recommendations about which media are appropriate for different learners. Nevertheless, he made many specific recommendations. First, he suggested that learners with below average IQ or a lack of prior experience related to the topic should be given more realistic representations (e.g., working models or films rather than still visuals) of phenomena than learners with average or above average IQ or learners with relevant prior experience. Romiszowski also suggested offering options so that learners who have preferences for audio or visual presentation can select the medium they prefer. Recent research by Plass, Chun, Mayer, and Leutner (1996) supports Romiszowski's recommendation. Plass et al. found that presentation modes interact with learner preferences to influence both encoding and retrieval processes; only learners with a preference for visual information benefited from having access to visual information in addition to verbal information. This suggests that for information presentation, the choice of media should be reserved for the learner. However, this would increase the cost of development, since more than one representation of the same information would have to be created.

One problem with matching instruction to learner preferences is that a trainee may prefer a particular medium or mode of information representation, but may underestimate the amount of mindful effort required to master the learning goals in that medium (Clark, 1982; Salomon, 1984). In general, trainees benefit from instructional presentations and activities that lead them to engage in cognitive activity that is essential to acquisition and application of the knowledge involved in task performance. For example, if one suspects that trainees will not pay attention to critical changes in a system as some operation is performed on the system, then those changes should be highlighted in some way, (e.g, either with verbal or graphic cues). Many media might facilitate such cueing (Clark & Sugrue, 1988). If a trainee is unlikely to recognize the naivete of a personal theory about the relationship between two variables, (e.g., force and motion), then the trainee should be confronted with evidence to contradict that naive theory as a first step toward acquiring a more accurate theory (White, 1992). Such instructional support for cognitive processing can be provided by a variety of media.

Decisions regarding which trainees need more or less support for cognitive processing in a given program are important because trainees who do not need support may learn less when an attempt is made to replace their idiosyncratic and successful cognitive strategies with less familiar competing strategies (Clark, 1988; Lohman, 1986). When the strategies employed in instruction match a student's own strategies, then learning is increased (Shute, 1992). Thus, interventions supporting cognitive processing should only be given to those who need them, and should not be in conflict with a student's own strategies. This suggests that one of the key attributes that should be included in any mix of media selected to deliver training will be the capability to monitor performance and adapt interventions to the needs of individual trainees. Research on adaptive instruction indicates that such instruction can (a) reduce training time by up to fifty percent and (b) is more effective and efficient when the adaptation is based on trainees' performance on recent tasks within the training, rather than on global or pre-task estimates of ability (Tobias, 1989).

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  gaining attention,
  
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  informing the learner of the objective,
  
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  stimulating recall of prerequisite learning,
  
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  presenting stimulus material,
  
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  providing learning guidance,
  
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  eliciting performance,
  
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  providing corrective feedback,
  
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  assessing performance, and
  
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  enhancing retention and transfer.
  

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  transmission of information about the task to the learner,
  
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  transmission of information about the learner's current state of expertise in relation to the goal back to the system (based on the learners' performance on practice activities), and
  
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  provision of corrective feedback to the learner.
  

The most common events of instruction to be analyzed and matched to media are the presentation of information, and practice activities. Romiszowski (1988) and Cantor (1988) both matched media to type of information, particularly the sensory channels through which information must be encoded during task performance. For example, if sounds were an integral part of the task, then a medium capable of transmitting live or pre-recorded sound would be required. Cantor (1988) distinguished among twenty-one physical characteristics of the information that could be presented during training. He grouped these twenty-one characteristics into six categories: visual form, movement, color, scale, audio, and "other". The "other" category consisted of three characteristics: tactile cues, external stimulus motion cues, and internal stimulus motion cues. In a chart, Cantor indicated which types of media are capable of delivering information with each of the twenty-one physical characteristics. This level of detail seems unnecessary for decisions that are fairly obvious. For example, if you want trainees to view some still pictures of different types of chemical processes, then any medium that can deliver pictures can be used; if color is an important component of the process, then a medium that can display color pictures may be necessary.

As for the aspects of practice that dictate media, both Romiszowski's and Cantor's models suggest matching media to response types. However, they differ in how they classify response types. Romiszowski distinguished among three types of responses: motor responses and perceptions; verbal responses (including naming, identifying, discriminating, and classifying); and complex verbal responses (including induction, problem solving, and deduction). The theoretical basis for this set and classification of response types is not clear. For example, why is problem solving classified as an instance of a complex verbal response? Would a verbal response be the only way to demonstrate problem-solving ability? Why would simple verbal responses require different media than do complex verbal responses?

Cantor distinguished among ten types of response modes during practice that would influence the selection of media. Those response modes are covert response, multiple choice, short answer, free style written, decision indicator, voice, fine movement manipulative, broad movement manipulative, tracking, and procedural manipulative. It is not clear why one should distinguish between these particular types of responses in order to select appropriate media. Neither is it clear what all of the media recommended as appropriate for different types of responses have in common. For example, the media checked as appropriate for handling decision responses are instructor, telephone conference, interactive television, teaching machines, simulator, computer-assisted instruction, and real environment. It is not clear how these media differ from the media recommended for handling multiple-choice responses: instructor, printed material, audio tape, still film, television, teaching machines, and computer-assisted instruction.