Сборник учебных текстов по развитию английской устной речи для студентов неязыковых специальностей

I’m a student at the Faculty of Economics. In the near future I’ll graduate from the University and become a professional economist. I’m sure that the profession of an economist is one the most important nowadays in view of the situation in our Republic.

What makes a good economist? Whatever he does, an economist should have a thorough training in economic theory, mathematics and statistics and our University offers such training. At the University we are taught various general and special subjects, such as Macroeconomics, Microeconomics, Management, Accounting, Marketing, Advertising, Money and Banking, Economic Theory, Econometrics, Statistics, Computer Science, Philosophy, Business Ethics, Foreign Languages, etc.

An economist needs some knowledge of the world outside his own country because both business and government are deeply involved in the world economy. Some knowledge of political and economic history will help him to expect changes and always look for basic long-run forces under the surface of things.

The profession of an economist is quite diversified. The graduates of our Faculty work at educational institutions, various research centers and laboratories, in industry, business, banks, etc. You may continue your studies at the Post-graduate Courses or Doctorate if you have a desire and abilities to become a scientist or a professor. Scientist in the field of economics creates new theories and models, test their hypotheses and carry out economic researches.

Being employed in industry and business, our graduates work as managers, as an executive manager, a sales manager, a financial manager. Some of us work as accountants. An accountant is one of the most prestigious and widely required professions of an economist in any society. You shouldn’t mix an accountant and with a book-keeper. While a book-keeper is mostly involved in calculations, like balance sheets, income statements, invoices, an accountant is responsible for designing the financial policy of a company.

Some of us work at the banks, at the Stock Exchange as brokers, others work for the government or are employed by various agencies and by military services.

Knowing the economic laws of the development of the society, economists can solve many problems facing our Republic and I hope I’ll manage to make my contribution to this process.

When I was little I dreamed to be a pilot. But life is changing and we are changing too. Now I understand clearly that I can be useful in an absolutely different sphere. My favourite subject at school was chemistry and I liked to conduct chemical experiments.

Civilization is the sum of numerous items, and one of the most important of them is chemistry. Chemistry is widely used in machine-building and power engineering, agriculture, health service, medicine and consumer goods production. Chemistry enables man to melt metals from ores and minerals. Without chemistry modern metallurgy is impossible. Chemistry makes more and more wonderful substances from animal and vegetable and mineral materials. Thousands and thousands of man-made substances possess very important and useful properties of great utility for the life and work of man.

Chemistry is a faithful helper of the farmer. The output of mineral fertilizers, chemical pest killers and herbicides has been increased. It can be said that no branch of the modern economy can exist without chemical processes, methods and materials. The chemical industry produces new types of building materials, fabrics and clothes, medicines and dyestuffs – in short, everything necessary for industry, agriculture, and for man’s cultural and home needs.

Chemists are always on the look-out for new laws of nature, trying to penetrate deeper into the mysteries of matter, to clear the way to technological progress.

We study the chemical technology of organic and inorganic substances, but there are different independent branches of this science: electrochemistry, radiochemistry, biochemistry, cosmo chemistry and many others. Every year hundreds of young chemists graduate from the chemical departments and go to work to all parts of our country.

I’m in my third year of the History Faculty. I must say that I’m very interested in the subjects which I have chosen of all humanities as my future speciality. History was my favourite subject at school. I was fond of reading historical novels describing life, culture and political events in different countries of the world.

History is a process of developing nature and society. History as a science studies the past of mankind in all its variety and concreteness.

There are many historical subjects in our program: Ancient History, The Middle Ages, the History of Kazakhstan, Modern and Contemporary History, etc.

History helps people understand and explain the processes going on in various aspects of human life. It also helps foresee the course of events in future. Historians study and describe the historic events taking place in different epochs and in different countries. Their descriptions and analyses should be strictly objective and scientific.

As for me I’m deeply interested in the history of my native land.

The profession of a historian is quite diversified. The graduates of our Faculty can work as teachers and research workers at secondary and higher schools, different museums and archives. Many of them have become well-known scientists or chosen public activity as their career.

Whether I shall make a good teacher or become successful in some other field of social life remains to be seen. But I’m sure that my knowledge received at the University will help me succeed in my future work.

Kazakhstan, the largest of the former Soviet republics in territory, excluding Russia, possesses enormous fossil fuel reserves as well as plentiful supplies of other minerals and metals. It also is a large agricultural - livestock and grain - producer. Kazakhstan's industrial sector rests on the extraction and processing of these natural resources and also on a growing machine-building sector specializing in construction equipment, tractors, agricultural machinery, and some defense items. The breakup of the USSR in December 1991 and the collapse in demand for Kazakhstan's traditional heavy industry products resulted in a short-term contraction of the economy, with the steepest annual decline occurring in 1994. In 1995-97, the pace of the government program of economic reform and privatization quickened, resulting in a substantial shifting of assets into the private sector. Kazakhstan enjoyed double-digit growth in 2000-01 - and a solid 9.5% in 2002 - thanks largely to its booming energy sector, but also to economic reform, good harvests, and foreign investment. The opening of the Caspian Consortium pipeline in 2001, from western Kazakhstan's Tengiz oilfield to the Black Sea, substantially raised export capacity. The country has embarked upon an industrial policy designed to diversify the economy away from overdependence on the oil sector, by developing light industry. Additionally, the policy aims to reduce the influence of foreign investment and foreign personnel; the government has engaged in several disputes with foreign oil companies over the terms of production agreements, and tensions continue.

Kazakhstan, a member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, is an economic development leader in Central Asia. It maintains a special relationship with Russia, and China has invested billions to access its hydrocarbon resources. In August 2007, President Nursultan Nazarbayev's Nur Otan party won all of the seats in the lower house of parliament. The parliament approved constitutional reforms that increase its role in governance and abolish presidential term limits. Energy and commodities have driven economic growth, and oil output is projected to grow from 1.45 million barrels a day in 2007 to 3.5 million barrels a day in 2020. Despite Eurasia's highest levels of foreign direct investment in 2007, resource nationalism and corruption exacerbate investor uncertainty.


7.2 Business Freedom

The overall freedom to conduct a business is restricted by Kazakhstan's regulatory environment. Starting a business takes an average of 21 days, compared to the world average of 38 days. Obtaining a business license requires more than the world average of 18 procedures, and fees are high. Bankruptcy proceedings can be burdensome and lengthy.

Kazakhstan's average tariff rate was 1.9 percent in 2004. Liberalization has progressed, but services market access barriers, import licensing requirements, non-transparent regulations and standards, opaque government procurement, weak enforcement of intellectual property rights, and customs inefficiency and complexity still add to the cost of trade. Ten points were deducted from Kazakhstan's trade freedom score to account for non-tariff barriers.

Kazakhstan has a low income tax rate and a moderate corporate tax rate. The flat income tax rate is 10 percent, and the standard corporate tax rate is 30 percent. Other taxes include a value-added tax (VAT) and a vehicle tax. In the most recent year, overall tax revenue as a percentage of GDP was 26.8 percent. Partly to compensate for increased social spending, an export tax on oil was imposed in May 2008.

Total government expenditures, including consumption and transfer payments, are low. In the most recent year, government spending equaled 20.4 percent of GDP. As a result of gradual privatization, much of the economy is now in private hands. Budgetary targets were revised in May 2008 to allow for increases in social spending.

Inflation is relatively high, averaging 9.9 percent between 2005 and 2007. The market sets most prices, but the government retains the right to control prices, influences them through state-owned enterprises and manufacturing subsidies, and has made little progress in promoting competition in agriculture. Ten points were deducted from Kazakhstan's monetary freedom score to account for policies that distort domestic prices.

The government plays a large role in overseeing foreign investment. Screening of foreign investment proposals is often non-transparent, arbitrary, and slow. With the exception of investments in oil production or mining, rules on local content and local sources of financing vary from contract to contract. An investor may be obligated to train local specialists and contribute to the social development of the region. An unclear legal code, legislative favoritism toward Kazakh companies, and government interference in commercial operations further deter investment. Subject to restrictions, foreign exchange accounts may be held by residents and non-residents. Most capital transactions, payments, and transfers are subject to government approval, quantitative limits, and strict documentary requirements. The Investment Law of 2003 weakened protections related to expropriation and compensation and provides no clear guidance for either process. Land ownership is restricted.

Kazakhstan's banking system is Central Asia's most developed. All banks must meet international standards. There are about 30 banks, down from 130 at the end of 1995. Kazkommertsbank, Turan-Alem Bank, and the state-owned Halyk Bank dominate the market. Foreign banks may not have branches but may establish subsidiaries, joint ventures, and representative offices. There are three state-owned banks (a development bank, an export'import bank, and a housing finance bank), two development funds, and a number of microfinance institutions. Capital markets are underdeveloped, though the bond market has been growing. The insurance sector is small, and foreign companies are limited to joint ventures with local companies.

Kazakhstan's flexible labor regulations generally enhance employment and productivity growth. The non-salary cost of employing a worker is moderate, and dismissing a redundant employee is not costly. Regulations on the number of work hours can be rigid.

Kazakhstan is located right in the heart of Eurasia, where ancient meets modern and oriental traditions coexist with Western culture. We are sure that the centuries-old Kazakh culture and the unique nature of the region will enchant you. A trip to Kazakhstan will be a truly wonderful experience, a time that you will treasure forever.

Recently, Kazakhstan has become increasingly popular among tourists from all around the world. Local travel companies have been quick to respond to this phenomenon by increasing the range of services they offer, attracting even more travelers. Many of these tourists come from Germany, the UK, Japan, South Korea and China. These travelers have already experienced the touring routes of Kazakhstan, and we believe that it's high time to follow their example.

Today, Kazakhstan offers virtually all types of travel services - educational and entertainment tours, ethnic and eco-tourism, just to name a few. Numerous touring routes cover the country's entire territory. For example, you can't afford to miss the Golden Ring of Southern Kazakhstan. Some of the World's earliest cities flourished in this fertile oasis, located on the southern steppe, at the frontier between nomads and ancient settlements. A system of caravan routes connecting China with the Near East and Europe used to cross through this land. The Great Silk Road, or Zhibek Zholy in the Kazakh language, emerged as a major trade route as early as the 3rd century BC. A significant part of this road now belongs to the territory of Kazakhstan. Cities such as Turkestan (Yasi), Taraz (Talas) and Otrar are located along this ancient route, and in the past they used to be major settlements along the path of the caravans.

Southern Kazakhstan also hosts the world famous space port, Baykonur. It is quite possible that in the near future, not only the local people, but also tourists from abroad will be able to get one step closer to space and feel its fascinating aura, if not by joining a rocket launch, then by witnessing it from a nearby location. There is a proposal to create at Baikonur an entertainment complex with modern hotels and service facilities, similar to that existing at Cape Canaveral. Facilities would include a mini-mission control center which would simulate spacecraft launch, a planetarium, a museum of space development, a shopping network, restaurants, as well as 'cosmic cafes' for young people.

In addition, the region provides unique climatic conditions for recreation, rehabilitation, hunting, mountain climbing, skiing and ice-skating. Western Kazakhstan is situated in a quite unique fashion on the border line between the European and Asian continents, in the basins of the Caspian Sea and Volga and Ural rivers. Here one can find the second lowest land area on our planet, the Karaghiye Depression (some 132 meters below sea level), as well as impressive chalk cliffs.

There are rich hunting grounds and a number of good fishing spots, as well as areas suitable for water sports. The ancient ruins of Mangyshlak and Ustyurt, as well as memorials related to Kazakh history, are of significant scientific importance. One of the major resting spots in this region used to be Aktau. From here, one may observe not only the Karaghiye Depression, but also rocky cliffs and picturesque canyons, rich in mineral springs. You will be able to visit necropolises and underground mosques built by the indigenous stonemasons of old. The shores of the Caspian Sea offer numerous beaches. The sea dashing itself upon the cliffs, sandy beaches, and stony seabed. Extreme tourists will appreciate the rock climbing and sailing opportunities.

Whether you like touring by car or on a bicycle, or prefer water-based activities, you will love a vacation spent in Northern Kazakhstan, with its landscapes and climate. One of the most popular resorts for both the locals and guests of the country is the so-called "Kazakh Switzerland", a place called "Borovoye". A true gem of Kazakhstan, located between the cities of Astana and Kokshetau, this resort town has a population of some 5,000 people. It offers a rich variety of restaurants, bars, shops and discos.

Central Kazakhstan is the location of one of the world's largest lakes, Balkhash, the unique Karkarala mountain forest oasis, as well as numerous places of interest representing archaeological and ethnographic sites.

Eastern Kazakhstan bears the Altai Mountain range and its foothill forest regions, as well as the Irtysh River, and lakes Zaysan, Markakol, Alakol and Sauskan.

Kazakhstan is becoming increasingly recognized and respected on the international political scene, and it is no surprise that Almaty and Astana have become host to a growing number of various regional and international meetings and symposia. More and more business tourists have become interested in visiting the country, and you may find yourself becoming one of them.

Speaking of extreme and ecological tourism, there's more than enough space for these activities. Admirers of exoticism and adventure, bored by comfort and hotel accommodations, may stay in Kazakh traditional tent homes, yurts, and study the local customs, lifestyle and traditions. The list of services in this sector is continuously being enriched with new offers. Recently, traditional mountain trekking tours and wildlife reserve visits were diversified with another type of extreme touring - hunting with birds of prey. An ancient hunting tradition which originated in Central Asia is becoming popular again.

The charm of Kazakhstan - this is what you are going to feel from the moment you arrive. Have a nice holiday and an exciting trip.
7.4 Economy of the UK

The United Kingdom is a major developed capitalist economy. The United Kingdom is also a member of the G8, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, and the European Union.

The UK was the first country in the world to industrialize in the 18th and 19th centuries, and for much of the 19th century possessed a predominant role in the global economy. However, by the late 19th century, the Second Industrial Revolution in the United States meant the US had begun to challenge Britain's role as the leader of the global economy. The extensive war efforts of both World Wars in the 20th century and the dismantlement of the British Empire also weakened the UK economy in global terms, and by that time Britain had been superseded by the United States as the chief player in the global economy. At the start of the 21st century however, the UK still possesses a significant role in the global economy, due to its large Gross Domestic Product and the financial importance that its capital, London, possesses in the world.

The United Kingdom is one of the world's most globalize countries. The capital, London (see Economy of London), is a major financial centre for international business and commerce and is one of three "command centers" for the global economy (along with New York City and Tokyo). The British economy is made up (in descending order of size) of the economies of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. In 1973, the UK acceded to the European Economic Community which is now known as the European Union after the ratification of the Treaty of Maastricht in 1993.

Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised, and efficient by European standards, producing about 60% of food needs with less than 2% of the labour force (477,000[24] out of a total workforce of 31,598,000, 3rd quarter of 2007) . It contributes around 2% of GDP. Around two-thirds of the production is devoted to livestock, one-third to arable crops.[citation needed] The main crops that are grown are wheat, barley, oats, oilseed rape, maize for animal feeds, potatoes and sugar beet. New crops are also emerging, such as linseed for oil and hemp for fibre production. The main livestock which are raised are cattle, chickens (the UK is the second largest poultry producer in Europe after France) and sheep.[citation needed] Agriculture is subsidised by the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy.

The UK retains a significant, although vastly reduced, fishing industry. Its fleets, based in towns such as Kingston upon Hull, Grimsby, Fleetwood, Great Yarmouth, Peterhead, Fraserburgh, and Lowestoft, bring home fish ranging from sole to herring.

The Blue Book 2006 (page 110) reports that the "Agriculture hunting, forestry and fishing" added gross value of £10,323 million (at 2006 prices) to the UK economy in 2004.
7.5 Banking Industry

The Banking Industry was once a simple and reliable business that took deposits from investors at a lower interest rate and loaned it out to borrowers at a higher rate.

However deregulation and technology led to a revolution in the Banking Industry that saw it transformed. Banks have become global industrial powerhouses that have created ever more complex products that use risk and securitisation in models that only PhD students can understand. Through technology development, banking services have become available 24 hours a day, 365 days a week, through ATMs, at online banking, and in electronically enabled exchanges where everything from stocks to currency futures contracts can be traded .

The Banking Industry at its core provides access to credit. In the lenders case, this includes access to their own savings and investments, and interest payments on those amounts. In the case of borrowers, it includes access to loans for the creditworthy, at a competitive interest rate.

Banking services include transactional services, such as verification of account details, account balance details and the transfer of funds, as well as advisory services, that help individuals and institutions to properly plan and manage their finances. Online banking channels have become key in the last 10 years.

The collapse of the Banking Industry in the Financial Crisis, however, means that some of the more extreme risk-taking and complex security activities that banks increasingly engaged in since 2000 will be limited and carefully watched, to ensure that there is not another banking system meltdown in the future.

Mortgage banking has been encompassing for the publicity or promotion of the various mortgage loans to investors as well as individuals in the mortgage business.

Online banking services have developed the banking practices easier worldwide.

Banking in the small business sector plays an important role. Find various banking services available for small businesses.

Stock trading is the process of buying or selling of shares on a stock exchange, where investors are represented by stock brokers. A company that floats its stocks is called a public company and is listed on a stock exchange. Stock trading can be done either physically or virtually (online).

There are two main approaches to stock trading:

Active approach: This is the more common of the two approaches. The decision to buy stocks involves analyzing the company, reviewing the historical share price trends and understanding the current forecasts. Active investors are guided by the growth and intrinsic value of the stocks. This approach is mostly applied by the investment managers who manage mutual funds, pension funds and separately managed individual accounts.

Passive approach: This approach is opted for by investors who prefer low-risk, high-yielding stocks and invest money in them mainly for their retirement accounts. This approach assumes the efficiency of markets in the longer term. It is, however, not synonymous with the strategy of ‘buy-and-hold.’ Rather, it implies buying at low prices and selling when the stocks have reached a high price level.