Software takes command

41 Ibid.

42 Ted Nelson, http://transliterature.org/, version TransHum-D23

07.06.17, accessed February 29, 2008.

43 In his presentation at 2004 Digital Retroaction symposium Noah Wardrip-Fruin stressed that Nelson’s vision included hypermedia and not only hypertext. Noah Wardrip-Fruin, presentation at Digital Retroaction; a Research Symposium, UC Santa Barbara, September 17-19, 2005 < http://dc-mrg.english.ucsb.edu/conference/D_Retro/conference.html>.

44 Nelson, A File Structure, 144.

45 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FMV-based_game, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactive_movie, accessed March 8, 2008.

46 www.ted.com, accesed March 8, 2008.

47 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_cinema; http://softcinema.net/related.htm, accessed March 8, 2008.

48 Announcement of Ted Nelson’s first computer lecture at Vassar College, 1965. < http://xanadu.com/XUarchive/ccnwwt65.tif>, accessed February 24, 2008.

49 George Landow, ed., Hypertext: The Convergence of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); Jay Bolter, The writing space: the computer, hypertext, and the history of writing (Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates, 1991).

50 Randall Packer and Ken Jordan, Multimedia: From Wagner to Virtual Reality (W. W. Norton & Company, 2001); Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Nick Monford, New Media Reader (The MIT Press, 2003).

51 Qtd. in Espen J. Aarseth, Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 89.

52 Espen J. Aarseth, Cybertext, 89-90.

53 See www.webware.com.

54 Noah Wardrip-Fruin, introduction to “Sketchpad. A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System,” in New Media Reader, 109.

55 Ibid.

56 Ivan Sutherland, “Sketchpad. A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System” (1963), in New Media Reader, eds. Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Nick Montfort.

57 Ibid., 123.

58 Kay and Goldberg, “Personal Dynamic Media,” 394.

59 J.C. Licklider, “Man-Machine Symbiosis” (1960), in New Media Reader, eds. Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Nick Montfort.

60 Alvy Ray Smith, Digital Paint Systems: Historical Overview (Microsoft Technical Memo 14, May 30, 1997) http://alvyray.com/, accessed February 24, 2008.

61 Richard Shoup, “SuperPaint: An Early Frame Buffer Graphics Systems,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, April-June 2001.
<http://www.rgshoup.com/prof/SuperPaint/Annals_final.pdf>, accessed February 25, 2008. Richard Shoup, “SuperPaint…The Digital Animator,” Datamation (1979).
<http://www.rgshoup.com/prof/SuperPaint/Datamation.pdf>, accessed February 25, 2008.

62 Shoup, “SuperPaint…The Digital Animator,” 152.

63 Ibid., 156.

64 Shoup, “SuperPaint: An Early Frame Buffer Graphics System,” 32.

65 Alvy Ray Smith (2001). Digital Paint Systems: An Anecdotal and Historical Overview (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. Page 12.

66 Ibid., 18.

67 Alan Kay, Doing with Images Makes Symbols (University Video Communications, 1987), videotaped lecture (available at www.archive.org).

68 Alan Kay, “User Interface: A Personal View,” 192-193.

69 Alan Kay, “User Interface: A Personal View,” p. 200.

70 MAC OS X v10.5 released in October 2007 has finally introduced a feature called Spaces that support for up to 16 virtual desktops.

71 Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Nick Monford, Introduction to Tim Berners-Lee et al., “The World-Wide Web” (1994), reprinted in New Media Reader.

72 Ibid., 394.

73 Ibid., 393.

74 Alan Kay, “User Interface: A Personal View,” p. 193. in The Art of Human-Computer Interface Design, 191-207. Editor Brenda Laurel. Reading, Mass,” Addison-Wesley, 1990. The emphasis is in the original.

75 Noah Wardrip-Fruin, introduction to Douglas Engelbart and William English, “A Research Center for Augmenting Human Intellect” (168), New Media Reader, 232.

76 www.processing.org, accessed January 20, 2005.

77 http://www.processing.org/reference/environment/.

78 http://processing.org/faq/,

79 Alan Kay, “Computer Software,” Scientific American (September 1984), 52. Quoted in Jean-Louis Gassee with Howard Rheingold, “The Evolution of Thinking Tools,” in The Art of Human-Computer Interface Design, p. 225.

80 http://www.nobelpeacecenter.org/?did=9074495; http://www.nanikawa.com/; http://www.hoteles-silken.com/HPAM/files/C-62-1-en.pdf, accessed July 15, 2008.

81 http://www. http://www.artcom.de/index.php?option=com_acprojects&page=6&id=26&Itemid=144&details=0&lang=en, accessed August 9, 2008.

82 I am aware that not only details but also even most fundamental assumptions underlying evolution theory continue to be actively debated by scientists. In my references to evolution, I use what I take to be a few commonly accepted ideas from evolutionary theory. While these ideas are being periodically contested and eventually may be disproved, at present they form part of the public “common sense”: a set of widely held ideas and concepts about the word.

83 It is true that the software and web companies are gradually moving towards adding more functionality to webware. However, at least today, unless I am in Singapore or Tallinn which are completely covered with free Wi-Fi courtesy of intelligent government, I never know if I will find a network connection or not, so I would not want to completely rely on the webware.

84 www.mappr.com, accessed January 27, 2006.

85 http://maps.a9.com, accessed January 27, 2006.

86 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Street_View, accessed July 17, 2008.

87 www.field-works.net/, accessed January 27, 2006.

88 See www.artcom.de.

89 The full name of the project is Interactive generative stage and dynamic costume for André Werners `Marlowe, the Jew of Malta.’ See www.artcom.de for more information and project visuals.

90 Joachim Sauter, personal communication, Berlin, July 2002.

91 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashup_(web_application_hybrid), accessed July 19, 2008.

92 http://www.liveplasma.com/, accessed August 16, 2008.

93 Andreas Huyssen, “Mapping the Postmodern,” in After the Great Divide (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1986), 196.

94 See Wayne Carlson, A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animations. Section 2: The Emergence of Computer Graphics Technology
< http://accad.osu.edu/%7Ewaynec/history/lesson2.html>.

95 http://accad.osu.edu/~waynec/history/lesson6.html

96 Mindi Lipschultz, interviewed by The Compulsive Creative, May 2004 < http://www.compulsivecreative.com/interview.php?intid=12>.

97 Actually, The NewTeck Video Toaster released in 1990 was the first PC based video production system that included a video switcher, character generation, image manipulation, and animation. Because of their low costs, Video Toaster systems were extremely popular in the 1990s. However, in the context of my article, After Effects is more important because, as I will explain below, it introduced a new paradigm for moving image design that was different from the familiar video editing paradigm supported by systems such as Toaster.

98 I have drawn these examples from three published sources so they are easy to trace. The first is a DVD I Love Music Videos that contains a selection of forty music videos for well-known bands from the 1990s and early 2000s, published in 2002. The second is an onedotzero_select DVD, a selection of sixteen independent short films, commercial work and a Live Cinema performance presented by onedotzero festival in London and published in 2003. The third is Fall 2005 sample work DVD from Imaginary Forces, which is among most well known motion graphics production houses today. The DVD includes titles and teasers for feature films, and the TV shows titles, stations IDs and graphics packages for cable channels. Most of the videos I am referring to can be also found on the net.

99 Matt Frantz (2003), “Changing Over Time: The Future of Motion Graphics”

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