Theology beacon dictionary of theology
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- A History of Christian Thought
- For Further Reading: Martin, The Kingdom of the Cults, 360-423; Russell, The Method and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic, 263-303; GMS, 642-48; Wiley
- For Further Reading: Kittel, 5:800-14; Westcott, Gos-pel According to St. John, 2:188-91.
- For Further Reading: Wiley, CT, 2:51-61; Titus, Living Issues in Philosophy, 5th ed.
- For Further Reading: Vine, Dictionary; Wesley, A Plain Account of Christian Perfection.
- For Further Reading: Kittel, 1:20-55; Moulton and Milligan, The Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament; Nygren, Agape and Eros (2 vols.); Williams
- For Further Reading: ERE; IDB, 2:135-410. G eorge H erbert L ivingston AGNOSTICISM.
- For Further Reading: Schaff, ed., Encyclopedia of Re- ligious Knowledge
ADOPTIONISM. Adoptionism is a type of Chris-tological thought which arose in Spain in the seventh and eighth centuries. Its first proponent was Elipandus of Toledo, although its most vigorous champion was Felix of Urgel. The theory distinguished between a "natural" and an "adoptive" sonship, the former predicated of the deity and the latter of the humanity of Christ. Christ was held to be naturally and properly the Son of God only in respect to His divinity, but in respect to His humanity He was Son of God only by adoption and grace. This view was condemned by the Synod of Frankfort in a.d. 794 and by the Synod of Rome in a.d. 799. Although the term adoptionism itself usually refers to this Spanish heresy, the theory has antecedents in earlier Christologies such as Ebi-onism, Dynamic Monarchianism, and Nesto-rianism. The latter, by making a strict separation between the divine and human natures of Christ, is especially anticipatory of the views of Elipandus and Felix. Adoptionistic tendencies characterized the entire "Antiochene school" of theology. The strength of adoptionism, and of Antiochene Christology in general, lies in its grasp of the real humanity of Christ as over against the Alexandrian theology in which Christ's humanity tends to be truncated. Its weakness is that if God had to wait until a man proved good enough to be adopted as His Son, Christian faith
See antioch (school of), christology, hypostatic union, monarchianism, nestorianism. For Further Reading: Gonzalez, A History of Christian
In the Bible adultery is treated as a heinous sin. Not only is it explicitly prohibited in the Ten Commandments, but under Mosaic law adulterous parties were both to be put to death. The gravity of the sin is in its betrayal of trust, its violation and destruction of the most sacred human relationship, and its disruptive effects on the home and society in general. The Bible also speaks of spiritual adultery, as constituting the unfaithfulness of Israel or the Church, or an individual Christian, in his sacred relationship to God. Spiritual adultery occurs when one relates more loyally to the world than to God. While the gospel offers forgiveness for either physical or spiritual adultery, rather than demanding the death penalty, it in no degree minimizes its gravity. Moreover, Jesus refused to allow guilt for adultery to be confined to the overt act, but attached it to the intent of the heart. According to the NT standards of pure motivation, persons could be adulterous in God's sight even when the outward act was avoided. This must not be interpreted, however, as a condemnation for every thought which is sexual in nature or every experience of involuntary temptation. It is an expression of the moral principle that God weighs character by secret decisions and intentions, rather than by behavior alone. See family decalogue, sex (sexuality). For Further Reading: Wiley, CT, 3:79-94; Baker's DCE. Richard S. Taylor ADVENTISM. Adventism is the belief in the im-miment and literal return of Jesus Christ to the 29 earth. The English word Advent is derived from the Latin adventus, which means "arrival" or "coming." The NT equivalent of the word Advent is the term parousia (Gr., "coming" or "presence"). A significant facet of the second coming of Christ included in Adventism is the inauguration of a new age when the wicked will be overcome and the kingdom of the saints will be established on earth for 1,000 years. In a generic sense millenarianism (Latin mille, "thousand"), chiliasm (Gr. chilioi, "thousand"), and apocalypticism are related to Adventism. The belief in a coming age of divine rule has its historical roots in late pre-Christian Judaism and early Christianity. Parts of the books of Daniel and Ezekiel are Jewish canonical literary examples of the apocalyptic genre. Several apocalyptic books teach millenarian and Adventist tenets (e.g., 2 Esdras 7:50; 14:5; 1 Enoch 93:1-19; 91:12-17; 2 Enoch 33:1-2; 2 Baruch 44:11; 48:50; Testament of Issachar 6:1; and Testament of Ju-dah 25:3). Historically, Adventism has had prominent proponents in early Christianity, including Poly-carp, Ignatius, Papias, Hermas, and Justin Martyr. Montanus prophesied (between a.d. 150 and 175) that a new age would begin with the descent of a heavenly Jerusalem near Pepuza in Phrygia. Tertullian espoused one form of Mon-tanism in the early third century a.d. Reaction against Montanism squelched Adventist interests for nearly a thousand years until Joachim of Fiore, a priest (c. 1132-1202), began to write about a new age of the Spirit which was to commence in c. 1260. The Taborites in the 15 th century and certain Anabaptists during the Reformation period promoted Adventism. The term has a particular historical connection with the Adventist groups which arose as the result of the preaching of William Miller, a Baptist cleric born in 1782, in Massachusetts. Miller began preaching in 1818 that the second coming of Christ would occur in 1843-44. He based his pronouncements upon a somewhat literal interpretation of portions of Daniel 9—10 and Rev. 20:1-10. America was experiencing the Second Great Awakening which heightened interest in Miller's prophecy. Great expectation was followed by great disillusionment when the proclaimed dates passed with no return of Christ. Ellen Harmon, a Methodist teenager, was one of the followers of Miller who was not disillusioned. She had a vision which aided her in reinterpreting Miller's schedule for the Second Coming. Ellen married Elder White and became the guiding voice in the development of the
Although most of the doctrines of the Seventh-Day Adventist church are generally orthodox, they hold to at least three doctrines which set them apart from orthodoxy. They believe in the "doctrine of the sanctuary" as a special and final ministry of Christ in the holy of holies in the "heavenly" sanctuary; in the observance of the seventh day to keep the commandments of God; in the "spirit of prophecy" (Rev. 19:10) which pertains to special latter-day messages. Ellen White was accepted as the latter-day possessor of the "spirit of prophecy." See apocalyptic (apocalypse), second coming of christ, judge (judgment), millennium.
The word "advocate" in John's First Epistle uniquely refers to Jesus Christ, the first Comforter. It was the prayer of Jesus Christ which was answered by the Father on the Day of Pentecost by the sending of another Comforter in the person of the Holy Spirit (John 14:16). The setting for this exceptional use of the word "advocate" is a court of law where the condemned is not forsaken but lovingly represented by the only One who can stand between the sinner and a just God. This Advocate does not plead the case but points to His own blood as an acceptable substitute for penalty. It should not be overlooked that in this setting, sin is not an inevitability in the life of the Christian, but rather it is an ever-present possibility. If sin should be committed, the Advocate becomes the assurance of fresh forgiveness and continued acceptance with the Father. The mediation is not a vindication (as if the Christian were falsely accused and needed to be exonerated) but an ever-available basis for forgiveness, based on the once-for-all atonement of Calvary. See propitiation, atonement, mediation (mediator).
The modern theories of beauty are psychological in contrast to the earlier ones. Immanuel Kant represents the beginning of the modern scientific and psychological study of aesthetic theory. For him beauty was a quality of objects, not a merely subjective taste. Today, the nature of beauty is much in question. People vary so widely in the area of artistic appreciation that many thinkers who would insist upon the existence of norms in ethics and religion, are inclined to be quite subjective in the field of aesthetic appreciation. Theories. (1) The ancient Greeks, especially Plato, thought of art and the art object as an imperfect attempt and result to portray the universal. (2) Those who are involved in the creation of beautiful objects, to them art is pleasure, and pleasure is its proper function. (3) Related to pleasure, art can be seen as an escape from life. It can be a form of relaxation in which man uses his creative imagination to pursue the arts. (4) Psychologists interpret art as empathy, in which people experience to a lesser degree what they would experience if they were participating in a situation or performing the actions which the AFFECTIONS—AGAPE 31
work of art depicts. (5) Art is also a means of communication. Leo Tolstoy says, "By art man transmits his feelings." (6) According to the Italian philosopher B. Croce, art is intuition that is expressed; it reveals preference and sense of values. (7) For John Dewey art is experience. Art reflects experience, like the grace of a baseball player. Art is a judgment on the quality of life and a means of promoting its development. For the Christian the field of aesthetics says something basic about the nature of the universe and its Creator. Warren C. Young expresses it succinctly: "If man is to receive aesthetic satisfaction, this must be the kind of universe which works with his efforts. The interrelation of man and nature reflected in aesthetic experience is an additional argument for the existence of a Supreme Being." This Supreme Being is revealed in the Bible. The Psalmist in Ps. 96:5-6 testifies that "the Lord made the heavens. Splendor and majesty are before Him, strength and beauty are in His sanctuary" (nasb). To understand, experience, and appreciate the world of the aesthetic in its fullness, one needs to research the One who is the Source of all beauty, and to enter into a relationship with Jesus Christ, who is altogether lovely. See axiology, beauty, values, christian ethics.
While not an exact translation, perhaps, of phroneite (Col. 3:2), the KJV admirably expresses the sense: "Set your affection on things above"; for the Bible holds us accountable for the quality and direction of our affections. They are to be controlled by the will and directed, first to God, then toward persons and things in a holy and lawful way. Straying affections may very probably be the most common cause of backsliding. Loving people with deep and tender attachment is not in itself to be feared, as long as such affection is disciplined by a primary passion to please God. Christians are to be "devoted to one another in brotherly love" (Rom. 12:10, nasb). See love, discipline, values.
The three key verbs for love in prebiblical Greek are eran, philein, and agapan. Eran (n. eros) describes the passionate love which desires the other for itself, in order to experience personal fulfillment. Philein (n. philia) usually denotes the love of gods for men or friends for friends. In agapan is found little of the passion of eran or the warmth of philein. Agapan means "to prefer," "to esteem one person (or thing) more highly than another." The specific meaning of agapan now becomes apparent. Eran expresses a general love seeking satisfaction where it can; agapan means to love another by choice. Eran speaks of a love determined by its object; agapan denotes the free and decisive act of the subject. So, eran is more emotional while agapan is carefully volitional. Probably because of its orgiastic associations eran I eros does not occur in the NT. However, philein is found in 25 references, sometimes synonymous with agapan (e.g., John 16:27; 1 Cor. 16:22; Rev. 3:19) but usually in its etymological sense (e.g., John 11:3, 36; 20:2; 21:17 [3]; trans, "kiss" in Matt. 26:48; Mark 14:44). Agapan, however, occurs 140 times, and agape 85. The volitional meaning of agapan/agape is everywhere apparent in the NT. Agape may be good or evil, depending on whether one "prefers" God or the world (cf. Matt. 22:37 with 1 John 2:15; 2 Tim. 4:10; and see John 3:19). In the Great Commandment Jesus uses aga-peseis, "thou shalt love," and declares our obligation to love God with our whole being. The same word is used to affirm our obligation toward our neighbor. To love God is to assign supreme value to Him, i.e., to worship Him alone. To love neighbor as oneself is to prefer his high 32 AGE, AGES—AGNOSTICISM est good as one should seek his own true welfare. In Matt. 5:43-48 (cf. Luke 6:32-36) agape is love of enemy on the pattern of God's own inclusive love (cf. 1 John 4:10-11). The Cross is the supreme expression of the divine agape (Rom. 5:8-10). This is the love of God which is not "caused" by anything attractive or worthy in man but, originating in God's own being, is directed toward the unlovable and unworthy. Agape does not seek but creates goodness. God, who loves us, does not seek anything for himself (cf. 1 Cor. 13:5); all He desires is to benefit us. And the benefit He wishes to impart is not some "thing" but His very Self. By His Spirit He pours His agape into the believer (Rom. 5:5). Imparted to us by the new birth (1 John 4:7), agape is "perfected" in us when, by God's sanctifying grace, it reaches its intended goal of becoming fully regnant within us so that of us it may be said, "As he is, so are we in this world" (vv. 17-18; cf. Rom. 12:9-21; 1 Corinthians 13). Agape is both God's gift (Rom. 5:5) and His command (13:8-10). Agape was also a term used for a solemn meal held in the Early Church in connection with the Lord's Supper. It probably began with the separation from the original eucharistic meal of everything except the two acts connected with the bread and the cup instituted by Jesus. The practice of the Agape varied from place to place, and was largely extinct by the seventh century in the Western church. See affections, great commandments, brotherly love, devote (devotion), For Further Reading: Kittel, 1:20-55; Moulton and Milligan, The Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament; Nygren, Agape and Eros (2 vols.); Williams, The Spirit and forms of Love; Furnish, The love Command of the New Testament; Wynkoop, A Theology of Love. William M. Greathouse AGE, AGES. The concept of age can be associated with the years of a person's life, indicating how old he or she may be. Old age was respected in the OT (Lev. 19:32; Deut. 32:7) and also in NT times (1 Tim. 5:1-2). Thus honor and the blessing of God were associated with old age (Prov. 16:31). The term "age" was also loosely used of a long span of time, whether in the past, or the future. Even the eternity of God could be expressed in the phrase Rock of Ages ("Rock eternal," [Isa. 26:4, niv]). The KJV margin of Ps. 145:13 states that the Lord's kingdom is "a kingdom of all ages," meaning it has no beginning or end. In the OT, KJV has other translations for the Hebrew word behind "ages," such as "everlasting" and "ancient." The Hebrew word is olam or olamim (plural). Its basic meaning is unlimited time; or, a future without an end. The word designates both God's covenant and promises as everlasting. The same is true of the Messianic King and His kingdom (Ps. 45:6; 89:35-37; 110:4). It is part of the title "Everlasting Father" (Isa. 9:6, Niv). The Hebrew word is also employed in NIV to describe existence after death in such phrases as "eternal home" (Eccles. 12:5) and "everlasting life ... everlasting contempt" (Dan. 12:2). In the NT, the concept of eschatological time is found in the phrase "in the coming ages" (Eph. 2:7, Niv), when the full riches of salvation will be revealed. This idea of a future without an end is also found in the phrase "for ever and ever" (3:21, Niv). These phrases rest in the Greek word aidn, which has the meaning of indefinite past time and indefinite future time. It is often translated with futuristic words like "everlasting," "eternal," "eternity," "forever," etc. See passages such as 1 Tim. 1:17; Eph. 3:11; 1 Pet. 1:25; Heb. 5:6. See eternity, time. For Further Reading: ERE; IDB, 2:135-410. George Herbert Livingston AGNOSTICISM. This is the doctrine that man cannot have any certainty about God's existence or the supernatural generally, since such knowledge is by nature beyond the limits of human reason. Agnosticism is a type of skepticism. The skeptic is concerned with showing that human reason is restricted to function within set boundaries. These boundaries limit the types of knowledge which are available to the mind. While the skeptic has doubts about the availability of human knowledge in general, the agnostic confines his doubts to the areas of theology and metaphysics. In the Greek language agnosticism means "unknown" or "without knowledge." The term was first used in the 19 th century by Thomas Huxley. Annoyed by the dogmatic assertions of the church which he felt were unsupported, Huxley reacted by refusing to commit himself on theological issues. For all practical purposes the agnostic is one who claims to be ignorant of the answers to life's ultimate questions. He refuses to take responsibility for this ignorance because the fault, he believes, lies not in himself but in the subject matter. The Christian response is that the agnostic is responsible, since he has kept the blind
ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL—ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION 33 drawn on the sunlight of revelation. The Holy Spirit will bring assurance to a willing mind (John 7:17). See epistemology, knowledge, faith, theistic proofs. For Further Reading: Schaff, ed., Encyclopedia of Re- ligious Knowledge, 1:36-38; Muggeridge, Albion Agnos- tics; "Man's Relationship with His Creator," Vital Speeches, Oct. 30, 1975. ROBERT A. MATTKE Directory: sites -> default -> files -> publications publications -> Table of Content forward introduction publications -> Rehabilitation Engineering Research Center for Wireless Technologies Georgia Institute of Technology publications -> Housing Counseling Research in Chicago publications -> Communicating with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Audiences publications -> New Brunswick Info Sheet on First Nations Child Welfare publications -> Paap’s Electronic Newsletter 14 November 2008 Volume 11 Number 22 towards ‘smart’ subsidies in agriculture: lessons from recent experience in malawi publications -> Information support of pedagogical process for the children experiencing difficulties with acquisition of preschool educational programs publications -> Asus’ ZenFone ar has Google’s augmentted and virtual reality baked in — but not combined publications -> School Readiness and Early Grade Success Consultation Memo Atlanta, ga Download 6.66 Mb. Share with your friends:
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