Theology beacon dictionary of theology
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- (Karl Barths Theological Method
- For Further Reading: Wiley, CT, 3:51-79; Purkiser, ed., Exploring Our Christian Faith, 462-80.
- For Further Reading: Boettner, The Millennium, 139-384; Clouse, ed., The Meaning of the Millennium: Four Views; Hoekema, The Bible and the Future
- The Roots of Fundamentalism: British and American Millenarianism (a history); Wiley, CT, 3:243-319.
- For Further Reading: Brockington, "Presence," A Theological Word Book of the Bible
- NIV).
- GRACE, MONERGISM, SYNERGISM, FREEDOM, CALVINISM, ARMINIANISM, WESLEYANISM, FEDERAL THEOLOGY.
- For Further Reading: HDNT; Murray, Humility.
- For Further Reading: IDB, K-G:711-27, 877-91; The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, 248-54.
- For Further Reading: Richardson, An Introduction to the Theology of the New Testament, 301 ff.
- Interpreting the Old Testament, 45-58;
| partiality. Derived from the Latin prejudicare, prejudice means prejudgment without sufficient evidence either for or against people, places, or things. Discussing Christianity as theological science, Karl Barth calls for freedom from prejudice of any type. Gordon H. Clark cautions that if prejudice be misunderstood as presupposition, neither science nor theology can accept such a restriction (Karl Barth's Theological Method, 66). There is a proper discrimination in making value judgments.
John Wesley notes how partiality beset early Christians, in his sermon "The Mystery of Iniquity" (Works, 6:257). Those who made distribution had respect of persons, supplying those of their own nation, while the other widows, who were not Hebrews, "were being overlooked in the daily distribution of food" (Acts 6:1, Niv). Elsewhere the Scripture decries partiality. God declares, '"So I have caused you to be despised and humiliated ... because you have not followed my ways but have shown partiality in matters of the law'" (Mai. 2:9, niv). James forbids favoritism, asking, "Have you not discriminated among yourselves and become judges with evil thoughts?" (2:4, niv).
William Barclay says diekrithete, translated "discriminated" in Jas. 2:4 (niv), can have two meanings. (1) "You are wavering, vacillating, hesitating in your judgments. ... If you pay special honour to the rich, you are torn between the standards of the world and the standards of God." (2) "You are guilty of setting up distinctions between man and man which in the Christian fellowship should not exist" (Daily Study Bible, 77). This breaks Jesus' commandment: "Do not judge lest you be judged yourselves" (Matt. 7:1, nasb). See discrimination, racism, judge (judgment), discernment, aesthetics.
It exists in two basic forms, each with characteristic theological and hermeneutical assumptions and conclusions: historic, and dis-pensational premillennialism. Great differences in detail appear within as well as between the two forms. Historic premillennialism is historic in two senses: (1) Some early (pre- and/or post-Christian) noncanonical, Jewish apocalyptic literature predicted an interim, sometimes Messianic Kingdom (cf. 1 Enoch 91:12-17; 93:1-14; 2 Enoch 32:3—33:1; Sibylline Oracles 3, 652-60; 2 Esdras 5:2—7:29; 2 Baruch 29:3; 30:1-5, 39-40). A variety of beliefs in some form of literal millennium is also attested in certain early Christian writers (Letter of Barnabas 15:3-9; Papias, cf. Irenaeus, Against Heresies, 5:32-36; Justin, Dialogue with Trypho, 81; anonymous Christian interpolations in the Testament of Isaac 8:11, 19-20; 10:11-12; Tertullian, during his Montanist period, Against Marcion 3, 24; 4, 31; and the Gnostic Cerinthus, cf. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3, 28). Significantly, however, modern adherents often reach their conclusions apart from these predecessors. (2) Advocates characteristically reach their conclusions on the basis of the so-called historical interpretation of the Book of Revelation. George Eldon Ladd (in numerous publications, including Theology of the New Testament, 624-32) is the most articulate recent proponent of historic premillennialism. Dispensational premillennialism arose in the early 19th century largely through the influence of J. N. Darby and the Plymouth Brethren. It forms the substance and structure of the Scofield Reference Bible (1909), whose subtle but powerful influence is largely responsible for its popularization in evangelical circles. Distinctive of the view is: (1) the division of history into dispensations or eras (usually seven); (2) the division of the Second Coming into two events, the secret Rapture and the public revelation, normally separated by seven years, during which time the earth experiences the Great Tribulation and raptured saints celebrate the marriage supper of the Lamb in heaven; (3) the division of the elect into two bodies: the (Gentile) Church, saved by faith, and Jews, saved during the millennium by divine fiat; and (4) a literalistic interpretation of prophecy. See millennium, dispensationalism, rapture. For Further Reading: Boettner, The Millennium, 139-384; Clouse, ed., The Meaning of the Millennium: Four Views; Hoekema, The Bible and the Future, 173-238 (an amillennial critique); Ladd, Theology of the New Testament, 624-32; GMS, 642-48; Sandeen, The Roots of Fundamentalism: British and American Millenarianism (a history); Wiley, CT, 3:243-319. george lyons PRESBYTER. See elder. PRESENCE, DIVINE. In the Bible, God's presence is revealed to persons ("face" is a common term); He is made known in particular places (Temple, Tabernacle, etc.); and He is communicated to the race (the Jews, humanity). Face. A personal communication, the "face" of God connotes His presence in both blessing and judgment. Moses saw God "face to face" (Exod. 33:11); the righteous shall "behold [his] face" (Ps. 11:7, nasb); He hides His face (13:1; 27:9; 51:9); the Lord's face "is against those who do evil" (1 Pet. 3:12, nasb). Place. God graces places with His presence; thus, Shechem (Gen. 12:6-7), Beersheba (21:33), Bethel (28:10 ff), and Peniel (32:24 ff) were worship cities. Horeb and Sinai were sacred places, too (note hills and mountains as representations PRESUMPTION—PREVENIENT GRACE 415
of presence—e.g., Psalm 48). The ark, Tabernacle, and Temple became presence places; in the NT the believer's heart becomes God's temple (1 Cor. 3:16). In the history of the church consecrated sanctuaries are also God's dwellings. In the Lord's Supper He is present (see references below for interpretations). Race. God's presence is revealed to the Jews (e.g., Ps. 22:3). He also promises His presence to go with the Jews (Exod. 33:14; 40:34-38; Isa. 63:9). The NT reveals that God came to the whole human race—Jesus is "God with us" (Emmanuel—Isa. 7:14; Matt. 1:23; John 1:14). The Holy Spirit is Christ's continuing presence (Matt. 28:20; John 14:16). Heaven, the place of God's unclouded presence, is His goal for the race (Rev. 21:3). See parousia, immanence, glory, paraclete, holy communion, transubstantiation, consubstantiation. For Further Reading: Brockington, "Presence," A Theological Word Book of the Bible, 172 ff; For views on Christ's presence in the Lord's Supper: Berkhof, Manual of Christian Doctrine, 325 ff; A mystical conception: Julian of Norwich, Showings. DONALD E. DEMARAY PRESUMPTION. When this word is descriptive of sin, it means sin that is open, defiant, and deliberate. Such sin in the OT theocracy merited radical, even capital, punishment (Exod. 21:14; Num. 15:30; Deut. 17:12). The Psalmist prayed earnestly to be kept from such sins (Ps. 19:13). The word also describes the bold arrogance of the religious charlatan. This person brashly intrudes himself where he does not belong, presumes liberties which are not his and knowledge which he does not possess. Of such persons Peter says that they "walk after the flesh ... despise government. ... selfwilled, they are not afraid to speak evil of dignities" (2 Pet. 2:10). This is the egomaniac. However, good people may also be presumptuous, in less culpable ways. Mary and Joseph exhibited this kind of presumption; they, "supposing him [Jesus] to have been in the company, went a day's journey" (Luke 2:44). This is the presumption of carelessness—of taking for granted things which ought not to be taken for granted. This is a common fault of parents and administrators. Such carelessness may spell disaster in one's personal spiritual life also, when one presumes on divine grace to compensate for prayerlessness, or assumes spiritual well-being without honest self-examination. When related to Christian work, presumption is akin to fanaticism, one definition of which is to expect results without giving due attention to adequate means. A preacher is being presumptuous when he habitually enters the pulpit without careful preparation, under the guise of relying on the Spirit. This is a self-deceptive, affected, and misguided piety. Similar is the distinction between presumption and faith. An action may be taken in true faith; the same action at another time or by another person may be presumptuous. The difference is the difference between obedience and self-will. For the Israelites to have entered Canaan at Kadesh when exhorted to would have been a demonstration of faith which God would have honored. When they self-willfully attempted the conquest two days later, it was presumption, and they fell before their enemies. Faith is responding to divine order; presumption is plunging ahead on one's own. Often ambitious Christians assay to imitate the exploits for God of others, supposing that whatever others have done they can do too; but this is presumption. This kind of presumption reflects an inordinate confidence in one's own judgment and abilities. Such error may occasionally slip up on truly devout persons. Joshua and his associates were guilty of such presumption when, in respect to the Gibeonites, they "took of their victuals, and asked not counsel at the mouth of the Lord" (Josh. 9:14). It is to be feared that many church building or other projects are prime examples of this kind of presumption. See fanaticism, guide (guidance), obedience,
Due to original sin, which resulted from Adam's bad representation of the whole human race, we are born with a condition that inclines us toward a life of sin acts. Scripture thus speaks of our being enslaved to sin (Rom. 6:16-17). It shows that in ourselves we are incapable of doing what we know we ought to do (7:15, 18). Jesus says, "You brood of vipers, how can you who are evil say anything good?" (Matt. 12:34, 416 PRIDE NIV). He also said that "a bad tree cannot bear good fruit" (7:18, Niv); also, that "apart from me you can do nothing" 0ohn 15:5, Niv). All these passages of scripture suggest fallen man's inability to do any good thing unless he receives God's special help—i.e., prevenient grace. Yet Scripture also shows us that God, in His graciousness, strikes out after us, to help us towards himself. "We love because he first loved us" (1 John 4:19, niv), it reads. Also, "No one can come to me unless the Father who sent me draws him" 0ohn 6:44, niv). This is why it was said of Cornelius and his household that "God granted repentance unto life" (Acts 11:18, asv)—where the word for "granted" (used also in Kjv, rsv neb, niv) is from the usual Greek word for "to give, bestow, present." The rebel must respond to God's offer of salvation; but still, his repentance is called a gift that is bestowed upon him. This, because he cannot repent unless he is aided by prevenient grace. In the OT, also, it is clear that God initiates our salvation. While some passages, there, simply urge people to turn to God, as in Ezek. 18:32: "Turn yourselves, and live" (asv); others make it clear that we must be helped, if we do turn. Thus we read in Ps. 80:3, "Turn us again, O God ... and we shall be saved" (asv). And in Ps. 85:4 we read, "Turn us, O God of our salvation" (asv). The most vivid OT passage, on this need for prevenient grace to help us to turn, is in Jer. 31:18-19: "Turn thou me, and I shall be turned; for thou art Jehovah my God. Surely after that I was turned, I repented" (asv). While both Pelagians and the semi-Pelagians denied prevenient grace, the need of it has usually been recognized. It was a particular emphasis of both James Arminius and John Wesley. Arminius said that "the free will of man towards the true good is ... maimed, ... destroyed, and lost" (Works, 1:526-27). Wesley said, "We [he and John Fletcher] both steadily assert that the will of fallen man is by nature free only to evil" (Burtner and Chiles, Compend of Wesley's Theology, 132-33). Christian hymn writers have often extolled prevenient grace. One of them, Lewis Hartsough, has us singing:
See GRACE, MONERGISM, SYNERGISM, FREEDOM, CALVINISM, ARMINIANISM, WESLEYANISM, FEDERAL THEOLOGY. For Further Reading: Grider, Repentance unto Life; Chamberlain, The Meaning of Repentance; Wiley, "Prevenient Grace," CT, 2:344-57. J. Kenneth Grider PRIDE. Synonyms of pride are ostentation, haughtiness, swaggering imposture, bragging vaunting vain boasting, "puffed up." The word "pride" is from the word meaning "smoke or cloud" (West-cott; see Jas. 4:16; Rom. 1:30; 2 Tim. 3:2; 1 Cor. 13:4). Jesus includes pride in His list of heinous sins (Mark 7:22). It comes from within a person, expressed or not. It is a spirit of self-sufficiency and superiority (see Dan. 4:25; 5:20-22). John makes pride one of three marks of world-liness (1 John 2:16). It relates not so much to life as existence, as to the manner of living. A pride-filled person trusts his own resources, lives according to this present world system (see Gen. 3:6; Col. 2:8). Good pride is boasting wholly in the Lord (1 Cor. 1:31; Phil. 3:3). Paul boasts about some Christians (2 Cor. 9:2; see also Phil. 2:6). Evil pride glories in praise to self. It yearns for applause from man instead of from God (but see Acts 14:27). It reveals itself when earthly advantages make one feel superior to him who lacks these things. The proud forget that all is of God. Pride may be expressed in at least two ways: (1) in speech—vain boastings 0as. 4:6, 16); and (2) in thought—arrogance, independence, repression (1 Pet. 5:5; Jas. 4:6; 1 Cor. 4:6; 8:1). Pride is the root sin. It consists of enmity against the rule of God in the soul. It is a disease in human nature which only grace can cure. It is idolatry. Pride seeks the recognition of men rather than of God alone. Pride may exist even in the heart of the believer (Rom. 12:3; 1 Cor. 4:6). It tends to backsliding, even from the grace of entire sanctification. Pride goes before failure (Prov. 11:2; 13:10; 16:18; 1 Tim. 3:6). One of Wesley's warnings to the sanctified was, "Beware of pride" (Plain Account). It is opposed to the Christian grace of love for
PRIEST, PRIESTHOOD—PRIESTHOOD OF BELIEVERS 417
God and all men, which is pride's only remedy (1 Cor. 13:4). See humility, seven deadly sins. For Further Reading: HDNT; Murray, Humility. John B. Nielson PRIEST, PRIESTHOOD. Priest'' in Hebrew is ko-hen; in Greek, hierus. It is a term applying to a person set aside to serve as a mediator between the worshiper and his God. "Priesthood" applies to the order of hierarchy of persons who serve as priests and to the rituals or ceremonies priests conduct in their mediating role. Priest, a Theological Necessity. The Bible presents "priest" and "priesthood" and all related redemptive aspects from the perspective of special revelation. Man, although a creature in the image of God, has sinned; and therefore, as unholy and estranged from God, is unable of himself to come effectively before God, who is holy, for forgiveness and reconciliation. The priest became a gracious divine provision who in his holy office served as mediator between God and man to the end that man might know forgiveness, cleansing, and reconciliation with God. Thus "priest" may be understood as both a theological necessity and a merciful provision. Priesthood of the Believer in Full Cycle. The "priesthood of the believer" emphasis, important for Protestants (from the Reformation), went full cycle across the span of biblical times. In very early and patriarchal times, persons offering blood sacrifices to God acted without a mediating priest. Individual worshipers were apparently exercising their individual priesthood. (Melchisedek, a one-time officiant for Abraham, was later considered a type for the "forever" priesthood of Jesus—Gen. 14:18; cf. Ps. 110:4; Heb. 5:6, 10). The OT priesthood hierarchy from Moses consisted in the high priest, ordinary priests, and Levites. The high priest, of the greatest importance, officiated as the mediator between God and those who offered sacrifices for sin. The priesthood of the OT, while emphasizing essentials of salvation, nevertheless precluded the individual priesthood of the worshiper. In the NT, especially in Hebrews, Jesus is presented as Founder of the new covenant from the standpoint of being the High Priest who supersedes the earlier Aaronic priesthood as the Mediator and Intercessor on behalf of the sinner before God the Father, and of being the Sacrifice who died on the Cross and whose atoning blood is a once-for-all atonement for sin (Heb. 8:6—10:25). It was from this standpoint that early Christians readily understood that the older priesthood and sacrifices were no longer necessary; they could come without the assistance of priest and sacrifice through Christ, to God the Father. Thus the priesthood of the believer had come around full cycle. See mediator, priesthood of believers.
The OT roots are found in Exod. 19:4-6. At Sinai God promised, "And you shall be to Me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation" (v. 6, nasb). The primary meaning is that Israel should be the representative of God to the outside world (cf. Isa. 61:6). The whole NT reflects the influence of these ideas. In 1 Pet. 2:5 the community of believers is called a "spiritual house for a holy priesthood, to offer up spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ" (nasb). In verse 9 a chain of OT references is applied to the new Israel: "a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for God's own possession" (nasb). Again the primary purpose is to witness "the excellencies of Him who has called you." In Revelation (1:6; 5:10; 20:6) the members of the Kingdom are designated as priests of God. The emphasis here lies on the ministry of individuals to God as a form of priestly service. The whole NT is replete with sacrificial language. Technical terms for service such as "presenting an offering," "firstfruits," and "sacrificial" are used regularly. In Rom. 12:1-2 believers are exhorted to offer themselves as living sacrifices, which is designated as a rational priestly service. The priesthood of believers is not a special caste of ministry, but involves every member of the Body of Christ both in individual and corporate responsibility. Each person is indeed his own priest through immediate access to God through Christ, but each man shares as well in the mediation of Christ to the world. See priest (priesthood), mediator, protestantism.
418 PRIMAL HISTORY—PRINCIPLES PRIMAL HISTORY. Some OT scholars prefer to designate Genesis 1—11 as primal history, because they believe the contents of these chapters have no historical validity. This creates a contradiction, for if Genesis 1—11 contains no history, why use the term in the title? Nevertheless, it is a common phrase. This position holds that the creation of the world, the great Flood, and the tower of Babel never happened as told. Nor were there such individuals as Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, or Noah and his family. Instead, the materials in the first 11 chapters of the Bible are understood to be based on ancient Near Eastern creation and flood stories. Various writers in the 10th, 9th, and 6th centuries b.c. reworked the non-Israelite stories and gave them distinctly Israelitish understandings about creation, God, man, sin, and judgment. Emphasis is placed on the themes which permeate these chapters. The stories are often relabeled as myths, sagas, and legends. Conservative scholars have recognized Genesis 1—11 as containing accounts of events that really happened and people who really lived. These accounts are not based on pagan myths, but constitute a God-given and God-preserved revelation—which either existed in writing before Moses' time or was put into writing by him. The analysis that conservatives make of the themes and doctrines found in these chapters does not differ greatly from that made by liberal scholars. Their estimates of the historical reliability of the material, however, are diametrically opposed to each other. Traditionally, the material has been understood as historical. See inspiration of the bible, biblical inerrancy heilsgeschichte. For Further Reading: Harrelson, Interpreting the Old Testament, 45-58; Fohrer, History of Israelite History, 176-84; Livingston, The Pentateuch in Its Cultural Environment, 137-50; Williams, Understanding the Old Testament, 74-84. George Herbert Livingston
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