Waart, Edo de. 56 Wachmann, Eduard 56
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- 7. Secular vocal works.
- 8. Instrumental works.
- BIBLIOGRAPHY
6. Motets.Willaert’s greatest and most enduring compositions are his motets. Out of a provisional total of 175, 79 are for four voices, 51 for five, 38 for six and five for seven or eight voices. The motets enjoyed wide circulation during his lifetime in manuscripts, printed anthologies and a series of influential publications issued by Scotto and Gardano from 1539 on. These publications, which include two books of motets for four voices (1539, repr. 1545), one book for five voices (1539, repr. 1550) and one for six voices (1542), were among the first printed books to focus on the music of a single composer, attesting to the high regard in which Willaert was held at the time. Like most of his contemporaries, Willaert used a wider variety of motet texts than most composers of the previous generation. Beside psalm, responsory and antiphon texts, he set sequences, hymns, gospels, psalms, lessons and sections of the Proper of the Mass as well as non-psalmodic passages from the Bible. In addition, there are five motets with secular Latin texts, which honour the Sforza family (Inclite Sfortiadum and Victor io, salve) and Cardinal Ippolito de’ Medici (Adriacos numero) among others. Willaert’s earliest motets, which number around a dozen and are mostly for four voices, appear in Italian manuscripts and printed anthologies from the second and third decades of the century. Representative works include the ingenious canonic motet Christi Virgo and the through-composed, pervasively imitative Saluto te sancta virgo, both in the Medici Codex (I-Fl 666, 1518) among other sources. Although many of these early works are thought to have been written for his Ferrarese patron Cardinal Ippolito I d’Este, they display the clear influence of Willaert’s teacher Mouton, a Frenchman, in their use of continuously imitative counterpoint organized into high and low voice-pairs, their melismatic, at times haphazard text declamation, and their additive formal plans consisting of interconnected polyphonic sections each presenting a single phrase of text. Willaert’s mature motet style is evident in the new works published from 1539 onwards, which were among his most popular compositions and enjoyed wide circulation in European prints and manuscripts. The four-voice Magnum haereditatis mysterium typifies their style, with its textural integration of all voices, flexible shifts between imitative and free counterpoint, and careful, prevailingly syllabic text declamation. Motets of this period also deploy a wide variety of interesting constructive devices including chant paraphrase, large sectional repetitions, intricate canonic structures, cantus-firmus tenors, recurring ostinatos and soggetti cavati. Popular among instrumentalists on lute and keyboard, these motets were frequently arranged for performance and publication. During the 1540s and 50s individual motets continued to appear in printed anthologies throughout Europe; however, it is those in the monumental Musica nova (1559) that best epitomize Willaert’s late style. Among the most celebrated publications of the 16th century, this large collection of motets and madrigals was discussed in well over a hundred extant documents from the period, including letters, theoretical writings, legal papers, repertorial inventories and payment records. Of special interest is the dedication by Francesco dalla Viola, Willaert’s Ferrarese editor, which asserts that the music had lain ‘concealed and buried’ for many years. Curiosity about this enigmatic dedication, the remarkable preservation of so many relevant documents, the significance of the title ‘New Music’, and the idiosyncratic style of the music itself have generated an unusual amount of research on the collection, primarily focussed on its fascinating publication history and on the Petrarchan madrigals that follow the motets in Gardano’s print (fig.2). Most of Musica nova is devoted to Willaert’s 27 long and serious motets, some of which had been composed nearly two decades earlier. Featured in the collection is an unusual group of sacred texts, including nine which had been previously set by Josquin, a cycle of seven antiphons from the feast of the Circumcision, and numerous Marian hymns, sequences and antiphons, as well as penitential texts from the Old Testament (Psalms, Jeremiah and Daniel), two of which (Audite insulae and Avertatur obsecro) were substantially rewritten so as to refer to contemporaneous political events. Equally unusual is the musical style of the motets themselves, which exhibit impeccable text declamation, low tessitura and thick voicings (the majority for six or seven voices), and extraordinarily continuous counterpoint built on declamatory rhythmic motifs that are distributed equally among all the voices. In evidence, too, are many of the same constructive devices that appear in earlier works: in particular, complex canons involving up to four voices and a preference for melodic ideas borrowed from plainchant. Willaert, Adrian 7. Secular vocal works.Willaert began composing chansons during his studies with Mouton in Paris. His early chansons, which circulated in manuscript chanson-books as well as in printed anthologies, tend to be constructed in one of two ways. The majority are in the style of the ‘three-voice popular arrangement’ that was cultivated at the French royal court of Louis XII. Here, a pre-existing secular tune borrowed from the theatre or folksong repertories of the previous century was stated one phrase at a time in the tenor voice while being simultaneously imitated and ornamented by the outer voices (e.g. Qui la dira). A second compositional approach, characteristic of the printed anthology Motetti novi e chanzoni franciose a quatro sopra doi (RISM 15203), involved paraphrasing a pre-existing monophonic tune in four canonic voices (e.g. Mon mary m’a diffamee). Even after moving to Italy around 1515, Willaert continued writing chansons for his Italian patrons, especially the Ferrarese Cardinal Ippolito I d’Este, at whose lavish court French musical styles and genres were cultivated. Later, when he was maestro di capella in Venice, new chansons continued to be published in anthologies. The largest group, 20 three-voice chansons, appeared in the Venetian print La courone et fleur des chansons a troys (RISM 15361). Thought to have been written over several decades, these chansons display a variety of styles. Some are three-voice popular arrangements of the sort Willaert had written as a young man in Paris. Others, especially those whose texts have been linked to events at the Ferrarese court of Duchess Renée de France, may date from the early 1530s and have many hallmarks of the composer’s mature contrapuntal style, including a heightened sensitivity to the text, angular melodic ideas with much syncopation and other rhythmic displacement, more dramatic changes of texture, contrasting tonal regions that are articulated by cadences at the end of formal units, and frequent sectional repetitions (e.g. J’ay veu le regnart et le loup et le lievre). Near the end of Willaert’s life, the Parisian firm of Le Roy & Ballard published retrospective editions of most of his chansons. The Cincquiesme livre de chansons (1560, 2/1578) reissued the three-voice works from La courone et fleur, and Livre de meslanges contenant six vingtz chansons (1560, 2/1572) included 25 chansons for five and six voices, most of which had circulated in manuscripts or in printed anthologies of the 1540s. The majority of these many-voiced chansons, like those for fewer voices, use borrowed melodic material – either a pre-existing melody from the French monophonic repertory or polyphonic passages by other composers, particularly Josquin. In the freely composed chansons, on the other hand, two- or three-voice canons are common. Of special note are the multiple settings Willaert made of certain texts, which he frequently set for three voices and again for five or six. Despite being amply represented in Italian anthologies of the mid-16th century, Willaert’s chansons did not find favour with the leading Parisian publisher, Pierre Attaingnant. Nor were they especially popular among instrumental arrangers of the period; unlike his motets, which were arranged with considerable regularity, only a handful of chansons appeared in the keyboard and lute collections that proliferated after 1550. It is unclear precisely when Willaert began composing madrigals. His earliest essays were published in anthologies from the mid-1530s and early 1540s and therefore postdate his move to Venice, a city not known as a centre of madrigal production at the time. In fact, they display the direct influence of Verdelot, who had worked in this genre while residing in Florence in the 1520s and some of whose madrigals Willaert intabulated for voice and lute (1536). Early works like Madonna, il bel desire (1534) display what has been called ‘the classic Florentine madrigal style’, a chanson-like idiom perfected by Verdelot and Arcadelt by the 1530s. Its identifying features include a prominent and tuneful upper voice and a formal plan following the versification of the text. This style is characterized by predominantly syllabic declamation, regular phrasing with a cadence marking the end of each verse, and prevailingly homorhythmic textures, which often incorporate dance-like passages in triple time. Willaert’s preferred text-form was the poetic madrigal or a hybrid of the madrigal with the ballata or canzone, both of which have prominent formal reprises. Several texts honour famous personages of the day, including Qual dolcezza giamai, which pays tribute to the celebrated soprano Polissena Pecorina (who later owned the manuscript of Musica nova), and Rompi de l’empio cor, which was written by the Republican martyr Filippo Strozzi during his imprisonment in Florence on charges of sedition against the Medicean state. Around 1540 a new style began to emerge in Willaert’s madrigals, especially those included in publications of his pupil Cipriano de Rore. This style reached its apex with the 25 madrigals of Musica nova, most of which were composed around 1540. Scored for from four to seven voices, these weighty madrigals share many stylistic characteristics with the serious motets that precede them in the publication. Setting (with one exception) complete sonnets from Petrarch’s Canzoniere, these madrigals enjoyed great fame and influence at mid-century, primarily because of the skill with which the meaning, syntax and sonorous beauty of the poetry were conveyed. Many scholars believe that Willaert’s choice of these Tuscan poems and his innovative musical settings of them paralleled, and may have emerged from, a contemporaneous preoccupation on the part of prominent literati in north Italy, in particular the Venetian poet Pietro Bembo, with classic writings of the trecento and their exemplary role in the development of the Italian language. Willaert’s sensitive and expressive treatment of Petrarch’s sonnets is evident throughout Musica nova. On the one hand, he carefully created large-scale musical structures that would match the form of each sonnet by presenting its first eight verses in the prima parte and the closing sestet in the seconda parte. Individual contrapuntal sections, on the other hand, were constructed so as to draw attention to striking poetic images, important phrases or self-sufficient syntactic units, which might not coincide with the poetic versification (e.g. Giunto m’ha amor). The impeccable declamation in earlier madrigals is made even more audible now by the coincident articulation in multiple voices of important or stressed syllables of text. Furthermore, by manipulating subtle but kaleidoscopic shifts of rhythm, texture and vocal colour, Willaert brought out the sonorous nuances of individual phrases, words and syllables. From a modern perspective, however, the most notable feature of these late madrigals is their unusually dense and continuous contrapuntal idiom, which largely eschews imitative textures, clear cadential articulations, distinctive rhythmic patterns and tuneful melodic ideas (soggetti), which are no longer restricted to their conventional positions in the soprano and tenor parts but now roam freely and unpredictably among diverse vocal combinations. The result is an elusive contrapuntal idiom that has elicited a wide variety of critical responses from 20th-century performers and audiences alike, some of whom have found the madrigals unattractive and impenetrable even as others applaud their sensitive and expressive treatment of Petrarch’s elusive poetry. Willaert played a central role in the popularization at mid-century of the Neapolitan dialect song called the canzona villanesca (see Villanella, §6). This new genre, thought to reflect an urban tradition of popular song in southern Italy, entered north-Italian musical circles in the early 1540s through Venetian publications of the three-voice villanesche of the Neapolitan composer Gian Domenico da Nola. Attracted by these colloquial songs of pastoral life, Willaert soon made his own madrigalesque arrangements, which were quickly published by the firm of Scotto, beginning in 1545. Carefully retaining the identifying features of his rustic models – the popular melodies, dialectical texts, irregular rhythms and homorhythmic textures – Willaert increased the number of voices from three to four, transferred the traditional melody from the highest to the tenor voice, enlivened the counterpoint and reworked the harmonies, and expanded the vocal range downward. His arrangements are thought to have been performed alongside more serious madrigals at sophisticated courts and academies in northern Italy and the Veneto, where they won unusual popularity and were reprinted no less than five times in the decades that followed. By 1560 canzone such as Willaert’s Zoia zentil, on a text by the Paduan playwright and poet Ruzante, had become hit tunes across Italy and had spawned a wave of similar compositions by lesser-known composers as well as established figures like Baldassare Donato, Perissone Cambio and Orlande de Lassus. Willaert’s canzone remained popular well into the 1570s, especially in the form of lute intabulations, which enjoyed wide circulation in manuscript and print. Willaert, Adrian 8. Instrumental works.Although Willaert is best known as a composer of vocal music, he played a key role in the development of the imitative instrumental ricercare at mid-century. In 1540 he began publishing ricercares, mostly for three voices, in collections of music by other composers. Many of these publications also contain motet or motet-like vocal compositions, lending support to the hypothesis that the new imitative style of his ricercares has an affinity with vocal genres, and the motet in particular. Willaert’s ricercares are highly contrapuntal settings for three or four voices of a limited number of melodic ideas subjected to progressive variation. Probably intended for private performance by students or amateurs, these works are best suited to ensembles of strings or recorders, though they were advertised as equally suitable for voices. Indeed, manuscript scores and transcriptions of similar works suggest that the ensemble ricercare was often played on keyboard or plucked instruments and that it may also have served didactic purposes. Willaert’s earliest ricercares appeared in another Venetian print entitled Musica nova (RISM 154022) along with works by Julio Segni and Girolamo Parabosco (both of whom were affiliated with S Marco), Girolamo Cavazzoni, Nicolaus Benoist and Guilielmo Golin. Unlike earlier examples of the genre for keyboard or plucked-string instruments, which tend to be sectional pieces dominated by improvisatory or idiomatic instrumental writing, Willaert’s four-voice compositions feature a seamlessly imitative, contrapuntal style that was to become the norm for ensemble ricercares throughout the second half of the century. Four more, entitled ‘Re’, ‘Mi’, ‘Fa’ and ‘Sol’, appeared in Gardano’s Motetta trium vocum (RISM 15436), this time with companion motets by Morales, Costanzo Festa and Jacquet of Mantua. Significantly shorter than the pieces in Musica nova, these three-voice ricercares are notable for their thematic unity, highly continuous counterpoint and infrequent homorhythm. A further eight ricercares were issued by Scotto in his Fantesie, et recerchari a tre voci … composte da M. Giuliano Tiburtino da Tievoli (RISM 154934). This publication was dominated by the aristocratic papal musician Tiburtino, with whom Willaert may have worked at the Este court in Ferrara. Willaert’s contributions, which may have been written as much as two decades earlier for instrumentalists at the Este court, are notable for their thematic interrelationships, their wide textural variety and the sectional repetitions with which several conclude. All of Willaert’s pieces were reprinted two years later, with two additional ricercares, in Gardano’s Fantasie, recercari contrapunti (RISM 155116, repr. 155925/R, 15938), together with compositions by Cipriano de Rore and Antonino Barges (both pupils of Willaert) and Girolamo Cavazzoni, whose father Marco Antonio was executor of Willaert’s will of 1552. Willaert, Adrian 9. Legacy.Willaert’s historical importance was assured by the large and diverse body of music he left to posterity, by his powerful influence on younger Italian composers (especially those fortunate enough to work with him in Venice during his lengthy tenure at S Marco) and, perhaps most significantly, by his influence on music theory of the late 16th century. From 1533 until well into the 17th century, Willaert’s name appeared on lists of the era's pre-eminent composers, compiled by such writers as Giovanni Maria Lanfranco (Scintille di musica, 1533), Adrianus Petit Coclico (Compendium musices, 1552), Hermann Finck (Prattica di musica, 1592), Cosimo Bartoli (Ragionamenti accademici, 1567), Gaspar Stoquerus (De musica verbali, c1570), Lodovico Zacconi (Prattica di musica, 1592) and Giulio Caesare Monteverdi (Dichiaratione, 1607), among others. It is Gioseffo Zarlino, however, who deserves the most credit for having passed on the teachings of Willaert to future generations of musicians. In Le istitutioni harmoniche (1558) Zarlino successfully integrated long-standing precepts of music theory with Willaert’s refined compositional methods and in the process inaugurated a new theoretical tradition that survives well into the 17th century. Zarlino used Willaert’s compositions to explain topics ranging from the deployment of specialized contrapuntal devices (e.g. canon, invertible part-writing, cantus-firmus paraphrase, fugue etc.) to his own idiosyncratic theories of polyphonic modality. More generally, he praised Willaert’s music for its skilful text declamation, its expressive harmonic variety, its apt use of major and minor triads, its melodic inventiveness and beauty and its tasteful application of chromatic inflection. Because so many of Zarlino’s ideas made their way into the music treatises of later writers in Italy, France and northern Europe, Willaert’s reputation as the leading composer of his generation was assured even as his music fell out of favour and nearly dropped out of sight. It is only in the 20th century that his compositions have been revived and reintroduced to the musical public, primarily because of their relevance to Zarlino’s treatise, which remains one of the most insightful, comprehensive and well-illustrated explications of late Renaissance polyphonic style. During the 1950s and 60s renewed scholarly interest arose for theoretical issues that had been examined by 16th-century writers like Zarlino and that also bore on the compositional concerns of the early 20th century: for example, the revival of sophisticated contrapuntal devices, criteria by which the harmonic and melodic coherence of a polyphonic work might be evaluated, the expressive use of pan-chromaticism and new types of chords, and experimentation with unusual systems of tuning. Modern curiosity about these and other topics attracted attention to Le istitutioni harmoniche and through it to Willaert’s music. More recently, as scholars have focussed attention on archival and bibliographical studies, a great deal of new information has been gathered about Willaert’s life and places of employment, the manuscripts and publications in which his music appears (especially Musica nova), and his multifaceted relationships with publishers and patrons. In addition, researchers have sought to establish a broader literary, liturgical and political context for both his sacred and secular compositions. Although this has led to widespread and continued historical interest in his music, individual pieces have had a difficult time entering the musical mainstream. With the exception of a handful of especially tuneful chansons, madrigals and motets, few compositions have gained favour with modern performers or listeners, raising perplexing questions about the aesthetic quality of his music that still await satisfactory answers. Willaert, Adrian WORKSselective list of sources Editions: Adriani Willaert Opera omnia, ed. H. Zenck and others, CMM, iii/1– (Rome, 1950–) [Z]Adrian Willaert and his Circle: Canzone villanesche alla napolitana and villotte, ed. D.G. Cardamone, RRMR, xxx (1978) [C]J.B. Weidensaul: The Polyphonic Hymns of Adrian Willaert (diss., Rutgers U., 1978) [W]Adrian Willaert: Five Double Canons, ed. B. Thomas (London, 1986) [T]Adrian Willaert: The Complete Five- and Six-Voice Chansons, ed. J.A. Bernstein, SCC, xxiii (1992) [B]Fantasie recercari contrapunti, ed. R. Judd (New York and London, 1994) [J] masses hymns psalms miscellaneous liturgical music motets chansons madrigals other italian genres instrumental arrangements doubtful and misattributed works Willaert, Adrian: Works masses
Willaert, Adrian: Works hymns
Willaert, Adrian: Works psalms
Willaert, Adrian: Works miscellaneous liturgical music
Willaert, Adrian: Works motets
Willaert, Adrian: Works chansons
Willaert, Adrian: Works madrigals
Willaert, Adrian: Works other italian genrescanzone villanesche except as marked; all in Z xiv
Willaert, Adrian: Works instrumental
Willaert, Adrian: Works arrangements
Willaert, Adrian: Works doubtful and misattributed works
Willaert, Adrian BIBLIOGRAPHYBrownI CaffiS EinsteinIM SpataroC Vander StraetenMPB, i (1867), vi (1882) J. de Meyere: Flandricarum rerum tomi x (Antwerp, 1531; new edn Bruges, 1842) G. Zarlino: Le istitutioni harmoniche (Venice, 1558/R, 3/1573/R; Eng. trans. of pt iii, 1968/R as The Art of Counterpoint; Eng. trans. of pt iv, 1983, as On the Modes) G. Stoquerus: De musica verbali libri duo (MS, c1570, ed. in GLMT, v, 1988) G. Zarlino: Dimostrationi harmoniche (Venice, 1571/R, 2/1573) O. Tigrini: Il compendio della musica (Venice, 1588/R) G. Zarlino: Sopplimenti musicali (Venice, 1588/R) G.M. Artusi: Seconda parte dell’arte del contraponto, nel quale si tratta dell’utile et uso delle dissonanze (Venice, 1589) F. Sweertius: Athenae belgicae (Antwerp, 1628) E. Gregoir: Adrien Willaert (Brussels, 1869) F.X. Haberl: ‘Messen Adrian Willaert’s’, MMg, iii (1871), 81–9 R. Eitner: ‘Adrian Willaert’, MMg, xix (1887), 81–92 T. Kroyer: Die Anfänge der Chromatik im italienischen Madrigal des XVI. 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Weyler: ‘Documenten betreffende de muziekkapel aan het hof van Ferrara’, Vlaamsch jaarboek voor muziekgeschiedenis, i (1939), 81–113 K. Jeppesen: ‘Eine musiktheoretische Korrespondenz des früheren Cinquecento’, AcM, xiii (1941), 3–39 G. Sutherland: Studies in the Development of the Keyboard and Ensemble Ricercare from Willaert to Frescobaldi (diss., Harvard U., 1942) A. Carapetyan: The ‘Musica nova’ of Adriano Willaert (diss., Harvard U., 1945) R.B. Lenaerts: ‘Voor de biographie van Adrian Willaert’, Hommage à Charles van den Borren, ed. S. Clercx and A. vander Linden (Antwerp, 1945), 205–15 A. Carapetyan: ‘The Musica Nova of Adrian Willaert’, JRBM, i (1946–7), 200–21 H. Zenck: ‘Adrian Willaerts “Salmi spezzati” (1950)’, Mf, ii (1949), 97–107 E.E. Lowinsky: ‘A Newly Discovered Sixteenth-Century Motet Manuscript at the Biblioteca Vallicelliana in Rome’, JAMS, iii (1950), 173–232 M. 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Lowinsky: ‘A Treatise on Text Underlay by a German Disciple of Francisco de Salinas’, Festschrift Heinrich Besseler, ed. E. Klemm (Leipzig, 1961), 231–51 H. Beck: ‘Adrian Willaerts fünfstimmige Missa Sine Nomine aus Hertogenbosch, Ms. 72A’, KJb, xlvii (1963), 53–73 H.M. Brown: Music in the French Secular Theater, 1400–1550 (Cambridge, MA, 1963) Chanson and Madrigal, 1480–1530: Cambridge, MA, 1961, ed. J. Haar (Cambridge, MA, 1964) [incl. H.M. Brown: ‘The Genesis of a Style: the Parisian Chanson, 1500–1530’, 1–50; W.H. Rubsamen: ‘From Frottola to Madrigal’, 51–87; D. Heartz: ‘Les goûts réunis, or The Worlds of the Madrigal and the Chanson Confronted’, 88–138] C.W. Chapman: Andrea Antico (diss., Harvard U., 1964) H.C. Slim: Introduction to Musica nova, MRM, i (1964) E.E. Lowinsky: ‘Problems in Adrian Willaert’s Iconography’, Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music: a Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese, ed. J. LaRue and others (New York, 1966/R), 576–94 L. Zolnay: ‘Data of the Musical Life of Buda in the Late Middle Ages’, SM, ix (1967), 99–113 H. Beck: Die venezianischer Musikerschule im 16. Jahrhundert (Wilhelmshaven, 1968) L. Lockwood: ‘A Sample Problem of Musica Ficta: Willaert’s Pater noster’, Studies in Music History: Essays for Oliver Strunk, ed. H. Powers (Princeton, NJ, 1968), 161–82 E.E. Lowinsky: ‘Echoes of Adrian Willaert’s Chromatic “Duo” in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Compositions’, ibid., 183–238 E.E. Lowinsky: The Medici Codex of 1518, i: Historical Introduction and Commentary, MRM, iii (1968) J. Haar: ‘A Diatonic Duo by Willaert’, TVNM, xxi/2 (1969), 68–80 A. Dunning: Die Staatsmotette, 1480–1555 (Utrecht, 1970) D. Kämper: Studien zur instrumentalen Ensemblemusik des 16. Jahrhunderts in Italien, AnMc, no.10 (1970) M.A. Swenson: The Four-Part Italian Ensemble Ricercar from 1540 to 1619 (diss., Indiana U., 1970) J. Haar: ‘Zarlino's Definition of Fugue and Imitation’, JAMS, xxiv (1971), 226–54 L. 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