"My parents, seven sisters, one brother, and I were given only twenty-four hours to get ready. Each of us could take whatever would fit in one suitcase."

—Nick Nakagawa, Phoenix Union High School student

237

Japanese Relocation Camps

Two of the ten relocation centers were in Arizona. Helen Takagi, age twelve, had to leave school in Safford. "Can this be true? Do we really have to go?" she asked at the time. "Everybody had to go. It was very sad." Takagi, born of an immigrant Japanese father and a Mexican mother, was sent with her two brothers and sisters to the hot, dusty camp at Poston. When they got there, each person was given a bag, like the one cotton pickers use, and told to fill it with hay for a mattress.

The camps consisted of wooden barracks grouped into blocks. Each block included a mess hall, recreation hall, and a combination washroom-toilet-laundry building. For the family-oriented Japanese it was not home, even though each family had a separate room. Furniture was made out of crates and scrap lumber.

"The confinement was outrageous," said Emma, Helen's sister. "Our immigrant father was so patriotic, he wouldn't let us speak Japanese at home. He said, 'We are Americans.'"

The Japanese Americans at the Gila Camp found life just as hard, but the soil was good. They dug irrigation canals and produced tons of vegetables. The people formed the Rivers Cooperative and got a license to sell the vegetables. The food produced by the Japanese Americans helped the war effort.

The Arizona state board of education did its best to provide teachers at the camps. Public libraries donated books.

—George Kataoke, Butte High School Yearbook, 1945 Gila River Relocation Camp

This was the Japanese relocation camp on the Gila River Reservation.

238

What do you think?

Mine Okubo wrote a book about her experiences at a relocation camp. Do you agree or disagree with her conclusions? Give some examples to support your opinion.

"People everywhere have the same concerns for home, family, comfort, and loads of problems. That's all there is when you come to think of it."

"Disaster always brings change both good and bad. Certain people get bitter, revengeful. Others show greater kindness, and they use their time to advantage."

"I was going to Glendale High School when a lot of Japanese vegetable farmers were moved out. It was sure lonely without my Japanese friends.. . ."

—Caroline McWilliams, teenager during World War II. Interview, The Arizona Republic,

—James E. Cook The Arizona Republic, June 28, 1992

Japanese American women harvest daikon at the Gila River camp.

Japanese American children enjoy a card game at the Poston camp.

Japanese American school children march in a Harvest Festival parade at the Gila River camp in 1942.

239

Relocation Camps Close

Early in 1945, the government phased out the relocation camps. Many evacuees returned to California only to find their homes vandalized or in the hands of another owner.

The uprooting of the Japanese Americans proved to be unnecessary. Their loyalty and combat record during World War II were admirable. In fact, the 442nd Infantry Regiment, made up entirely of Japanese Americans, won more decorations fighting in Europe than any unit in the United States Army.

In 1988 Congress passed a law giving an apology and $20,000 each to 60,000 surviving Japanese Americans who had been confined in camps during World War II. There was no way, of course, that they could be fully compensated for the injustice and humiliation they had experienced.

—Marjorie M. Saroka, The Arizona Republic, August 4, 1 985

THE U. S. ARMY brought many German and Italian prisoners of war to the United States to remain until the end of the war. The Papago Camp in Phoenix was the largest in Arizona for German POWs. Other temporary camps dotted the state. The one big Italian camp was near Florence.

Some of the captured Germans at the Papago POW camp pose for a picture.

240

German prisoners worked in forests, on irrigation projects, and in cotton fields. Before their capture, most of the prisoners of war (POWs) were sailors on ships and submarines. So why did the army ship them to desert country? Captain Jurgen Wattenberg, a navigation officer, understood. In broken English he said, "Dey put us out dere because ve vould be like fish out of vater."

Phoenix school children started a fad of painting POW letters on their sweatshirts. But teachers and parents stopped this practice, explaining that a boy near adult size might be mistaken for an escaped prisoner and be shot.

Now and then a POW did escape from the Papago camp. The "great escape" came the night before Christmas Eve, 1944. Twenty-five men got out of the compound through a tunnel that had taken months to dig. Soon after arriving at the camp, the POWs discovered a blind spot. They strung a clothesline over the area and kept it full of blankets that looked like they were drying in the sun. With small coal shovels, cups, and screwdrivers, the POWs dug a 130-foot tunnel to the bank of a canal. They hauled dirt out in a little wooden cart and flushed it down toilets or scattered it carefully around the camp. Both the engineering and the deception were amazing.

The escape night was rainy and cold. Three men quickly gave themselves up to get out of the weather. One hitched a ride to the sheriff's office to surrender. Two others asked a surprised Tempe housewife to turn them in. The next day, Civil Air Patrol planes searched the desert for the other POWs. The state prison sent bloodhounds to help in the search. Gradually, the prisoners were rounded up. Only Captain Wattenberg remained free.

For days, Wattenberg hid in a cave north of Phoenix. He finally ventured downtown and ate a nice meal at a Chinese restaurant. His mistake was asking for directions to the train depot at a gas station. The attendant detected his German accent and called a policeman, who escorted the captain back to the prison camp. A few months after his capture, Germany surrendered.

What do you think?

"No country wins a war, some just lose more than others." Explain why you agree or disagree with this statement.

"We had a farm and were thankful for the food we had. Dad got German POWs to clean the ditches, as all our help was gone. Also, Dad had problems getting gas for the tractor, so we put our plow horses back to use. . . ."

—Caroline McWilliams, teenager during World War II. The Arizona Republic, August 4, 1985

This is the entrance to the tunnel through which German POWs escaped from the Papago prison camp.

—The Arizona Republic, August 27, 1989

241

World War II: A Synopsis

Dictators who formed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis were ruthless and seemed unbeatable. Hitler bragged that Americans could never out produce Nazi Germany. He believed his young Germans, brought up in the Hitler Youth Movement, could outfight young Americans brought up in the Boy Scouts. But, as General Dwight D. Eisenhower said, "Hitler should beware the fury of an aroused democracy."

After entering World War II, the United States performed miracles. Working together, we quickly built our unprepared army and navy into a powerful military force. Civilian workers produced an unbelievable amount of war material—planes, tanks, ships, and weapons.

Arizonans took part in these miracles, joining with the nation in the struggle to save freedom and democracy. Arizona men and women served in all branches of the armed services in many parts of the world.

In the Pacific, American ground troops won bloody jungle battles on islands on the way to Japan. Our navy airplanes smashed a powerful Japanese fleet, sinking four aircraft carriers. By 1944, our big bomber planes were dropping their loads on Japanese cities.

Meanwhile, an American and British force, commanded by General Eisenhower, drove the shocked Germans out of North Africa and invaded Italy. In June, 1944, Eisenhower sent a large army across the English Channel from England. The soldiers landed on the beaches of Normandy in German-occupied France. From this hard-earned foothold, much tough fighting lay ahead. But Hitler was doomed. Stubbornly, he kept fighting while the allies bombed German cities, laying them to ruins. Finally, in May, 1945, Germany surrendered.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt died less than a month before Germany surrendered. The nation mourned his passing. The new president, Harry S. Truman, had a terrible decision to make. Should we invade Japan at the cost of several million American and Japanese lives? Or should we use a new weapon—the atomic bomb? President Truman warned the Japanese leaders "to surrender or be destroyed," but got no answer.

On August 6, 1945, a B-29 Superfortress flew over the hilly green terrain of southern Japan. The crew dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima. This seaport and rail center was the home of an army base. In a few seconds, Hiroshima was a flaming wreckage. In the words of historian Joy Hakim:

Dust makes the city as dark as midnight. The wind tosses people about. Thermal rays burn their bodies. An enormous mushroom cloud rises into the sky. . . . The second Japanese Army no longer exists. Thousands of civilians in the city are also dead.

Three days later a second bomb laid waste the city of Nagasaki. Finally, the Japanese surrendered on August 14, 1945. World War II was over.

The Enola Gay dropped the atom bomb on Hiroshima. The pilots trained on western deserts.

—Helen Bays, The Arizona Republic

242

The Cold War (1945-1991)

THE UNITED STATES, leader of the free world, tried to stop the Soviet Union from spreading communist control over other countries. Without actually fighting a shooting war with each other, the two nations engaged in an expensive arms race, including nuclear bombs and guided missiles. In Arizona, Titan missiles were ready to be launched from silos south of Tucson. Defense plants prospered with government contracts.

During the hostile cold war, the superpowers also struggled to be superior in space technology. The Soviet Union took an early lead, launching the first satellite into orbit around the earth and causing American schools to put more emphasis on science and mathematics. Finally, in 1969, two Americans astounded the world when they stepped on the moon. The astronauts had done part of their training at Meteor Crater near Flagstaff.

The cold war ended in 1991 when the Soviet Union split into independent countries. In the face of an economic collapse of the communist system, dictator Mikhail Gorbachev surprised most people by granting reforms. He allowed free elections and began cooperating with the United States to reduce tensions.

During the cold war with the Soviet Union, the United States fought two wars in Asia to stop communist aggression—one in Korea and one in Vietnam. You will read about these wars in a later chapter.

---see picture

In Arizona as elsewhere, fear of an atomic bomb attack by the Russians caused some residents in the state to maintain a supply of food, water, medical supplies, and other emergency equipment. Many adults who were in school in the 1950s and 1960s remember huddling under their desks in air raid drills. Public buildings often had a shelter area.

1. 
   Who were the three "bad guys" that caused World War II?
   
2. 
   When did the Japanese bomb Pearl Harbor?
   
3. 
   Which industry got a big boost during the war, and why?
   
4. 
   How did the war change the lives of women?
   
5. 
   What was the job of the civilian airfields in Arizona?
   
6. 
   List three important army air bases started during World War II.
   
7. 
   What code did the Navajo code talkers use and how did it help the war effort?
   
8. 
   Identify Ira H. Hayes and Silvestre Herrera.
   
9. 
   List three things that artist Lew Davis did to build black pride.
   
10. 
    Why did the U. S. government want to move Japanese Americans away from the West Coast?
    
11. 
    Where were relocation camps built in Arizona?
    
12. 
    What kinds of work projects were the POWs given?
    
13. 
    What two events brought an end to World War II?
    
14. 
    What country was "the enemy" during the cold war?
    

Governor Ernest McFarland

John F. Long

Del Webb

A. J. Chandler

Fred Harvey
PLACES TO LOCATE
Phoenix

Prescott

Litchfield

Mesa

Flagstaff

Snowflake

Miami

Tucson

Santa Cruz River

Yuma

Salt River Valley

Tolleson

Welton

Maricopa County

Castle Hot Springs

Safford

Wickenburg

Winslow

Tempe

refinery

leach

rubble

byproduct

alloy

hydroponic

sojourn

subdivision

prefabricate

anchor store

Motorola builds its first plant in Phoenix.

Many electronics firms move to the Phoenix area

Pima Mining Co. begins open pit mining.
1965

Anaconda begins digging an open pit mine.

Some farmers plant wheat instead of cotton.

More than half of Arizona women have jobs outside the home.

First Apache helicopters are manufactured in Mesa.

245

Manufacturing Balances the Economy

MANUFACTURING got a jump-start from wartime defense plants. Up to that time, the basic industries were the five C's: copper, cotton, cattle, citrus, and climate (tourism). Today, manufacturing is the number one source of income. Thousands of factories, located all over the state, produce everything from computers and missiles to doughnuts.

"Phoenix will be attractive to scientists and engineers. Air conditioning has transformed Phoenix into a year-round city of delightful living. Refrigeration cooling is the complete solution to the Phoenix summer heat problem," said Dan Noble.

Noble visited several cities to choose a place where his company, Motorola of Chicago, might move into the emerging electronics field. Motorola built the first of many electronics plants in east Phoenix in 1949. The company expanded from making television sets to silicon rods, from which the all-important "chips" are shaved. Computer chips—those tiny bundles of circuits called semiconductors—are the heart of many modern gadgets. Your toaster has one. So do your iron

246

Hundreds of other electronic companies sprouted and grew. General Electric arrived in the 1950s to do research and to manufacture computers. Intel Corporation, a large world-known high-tech company, opened plants where highly educated workers continue to make microprocessors, the brains of the modern computer. Intel developed the Pentium processor and does much ongoing research to stay ahead of skyrocketing demands for more computer memory.

This Motorola researcher is using a wet chemical processor. Motorola manufactures wafers

1901-1980

Daniel Noble first visited Arizona when he was eighteen. He had been having trouble with his eyes, so his doctor advised him to take time off from his studies. He went to Prescott and led an Outdoor life under the guidance of a mountain lion hunter.

Returning to school after a year, Noble became a scientist and a professor at the University of Connecticut. In 1940, Motorola in Chicago hired him as director of research. After helping the army and navy develop the walkie-talkie during World War II, Noble led a handful of Motorola engineers to set up a small research lab in Phoenix. His pioneer work in electronics made Motorola a leader in the field.

Noble served as president of the Phoenix Symphony Association. An outstanding painter, he did one-man art shows in Paris and other cities. He painted under the name of Hbon, his name spelled backward.

Aerospace Factories

State officials have worked hard to bring "clean air" industries to Arizona. Governor Ernest McFarland proudly took credit for bringing Sperry Rand Flight Systems to Phoenix. The company would not build a factory in Arizona unless a two percent sales tax on goods sold to the federal government was repealed. McFarland persuaded the state legislature to do just that.

During the Korean War (1950-1953), Hughes Aircraft chose Tucson for a plant to build the Falcon missile. The Hughes company, a national leader in missile technology, was southern Arizona's success story. The company, now a part of Raytheon, has employed thousands of workers.

Several World War II defense plants reopened and were merged with larger companies during the age of business consolidation in the 1980s. AlliedSignal Aerospace Company, which specializes in aircraft engines, now controls Garrett's AiResearch and other plants in the Phoenix area. Goodyear Aerospace at Litchfield is now part of Lockheed Martin.

In 1984, Hughes Helicopters, Inc., completed years of expensive research and began manufacturing the AH-64 "Apache" helicopter in Mesa. The company soon became part of the McDonnell Douglas Corporation, and then Boeing.

The Apache looks like a big insect on the prowl, but it is a lean, mean flying weapon. Designed to fly "low and slow" to avoid army radar, the Apache is the "ultimate tank killer." The helicopter is armed with a laser-guided missile system, rockets, and a 30 mm gun. The Apache is able to fly 225 miles per hour and climb in excess of 3,000 feet per minute. It is equipped for all-weather combat operations in total darkness—a truly amazing aircraft!

An AlliedSignal Aerospace associate puts finishing touches on an auxiliary power unit manufactured in Phoenix for a Boeing plane.

The AH-64D Apache Longbow multi-mission helicopter takes a test flight near Mesa.

247

A lemonade tycoon (age seven) sets up a stand on a shady corner in Coolidge. He advertises "real homemade lemonade," and he means it. The lemons are from his backyard. The sugar is refined from Arizona-grown beets, and the water is from a local well. His first customer? The lady next door. From raw materials through processing to the consumer, it's an Arizona operation all the way.

Sawmills in Flagstaff, a paper mill in Snowflake, cement plants, brick factories, cotton gins, and copper wire plants—all of these factories and many more make use of local raw materials.

Making copper products is far more complex than squeezing lemons. The Inspiration Copper Company, for example, mines copper, refines it, and makes rolls of copper rod at its plant in Miami. Then Cable Systems International in Phoenix draws the rod into telephone wire for use in underground cables.

More than 200 firms in Arizona process food or beverages (even lemonade). You could prepare quite a Fourth of July picnic with products from Rosarita Mexican Foods in Mesa, Frito-Lay chips in Casa Grande, Kalil Bottling Company in Tucson, Shamrock Foods (dairy and meat products), and any of the many bakeries in the state.

---see pictures

Tortillas are cooked, counted, and packaged at the Rosarita food plant in Mesa. TV dinners are also prepared there. (Photo by Cleve Langston, Rosarita)

The papermill at Snowflake now uses recycled material to make new paper.

248

Tucson is now called the "copper capital of the world." Most of the state's copper is mined within 125 miles of the city. Development came after geologists located a massive ore body that ran along the west bank of the Santa Cruz River. In the early 1950s, Pima Mining Company began open pit mining near Twin Buttes. Anaconda and other companies followed.

In this manner, the Anaconda Copper Company directed its man in charge to begin massive stripping operations at Twin Buttes, south of Tucson, in late 1965. To accomplish this fantastic job of earth moving, Anaconda bought giant bulldozers, scrapers, and trucks that haul 100 tons at a whack. A long conveyor system was installed to haul out 300,000 tons of rock and dirt a day. All of this work was to get a mere ten to fifteen pounds of copper per ton when the ore finally flows.

In addition to the mine, Anaconda built a multi-million dollar laboratory in Tucson. Scientists, engineers, and technicians at the lab now devote full time to developing new and improved methods of extracting copper from ores. Anaconda later combined with Amax to form Anamax.