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Orthography, variations and readings of the Koran



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Orthography, variations and readings of the Koran


Arabic writing underwent several stages. The currently adopted orthography of the Koran is part of this evolution. At the time of Muhammad, Arabic writings consisted of consonants and long vowels but never short vowels. Besides, some letters of identical form designated different consonants. Hence, the same symbol represented b, t, th, n and y. Dots (nuqat) helped distinguish the consonants from one another, and accents (harakat) designating the short vowels were later added and progressively introduced into the Koran. Without the dots and the accents, the exact reading of the Koran would have been practically impossible and would have remained dependent on the people who had learnt it by heart.

Even with the introduction of dots and accents, the orthography of the Koran diverged sensibly from the one in use in the other writings of the Arabic language since more than a millennium. Within the Koran itself, certain words were written in different ways. For instance, the name Ibrahim (Abraham) is written 15 times in chapter 87/2 as Ibrahm (without the i), and 54 times elsewhere as Ibrahim (with the i). Some Muslim authors think that the orthography of the words was indicated by Muhammad himself to those who were writing down the revelation during his time. Some went as far as attributing esoteric meaning to writing mistakes.1 But Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406) is of the opinion that the orthography of the Koran is simply defective. He writes:

Arabic writing at the beginning of Islam was […] not of the best quality nor of the greatest accuracy and excellence. It was not (even) of medium quality, because the Arabs possessed the savage desert attitude and were not familiar with crafts. One may compare what happened to the orthography of the Koran on account of this situation. The men around Muhammad wrote the Koran in their own script, which was not of a firmly established, good quality. Most of the letters were in contradiction to the orthography required by persons versed in the craft of writing. The Koranic script of (the men around Muhammad) was then imitated by the men of the second generation […]. No attention should be paid in this connection to the assumption of certain incompetent (scholars) that (the men around Muhammad) knew well the art of writing and that the alleged discrepancies between their writing and the principles of orthography are not discrepancies, as has been alleged, but have a reason […]. They think that good writing is perfection. Thus, they do not admit the fact that the men around Muhammad were deficient in (writing). They (want to) consider them as perfect by ascribing good writing to them, and they seek to explain (orthographic peculiarities) that are contrary to good orthographic usage. This is not correct. It should be known that as far as (the men around Muhammad) are concerned, writing has nothing to do with perfection. Writing is an urban craft that serves to make a living, as has been shown above. Perfection in a craft is something relative. It is not absolute perfection. A deficiency in (perfection in the crafts) does not essentially affect one's religion or personal qualities.2

While affirming that the Koranic orthography was neither determined by God, nor considered obligatory by Muhammad, some Muslim authors think that the consensus of Muhammad's companions was in favour of maintaining the orthography. They add that consensus implies an obligatory rule. They consider that the modification of orthography leads to variations which undermine the uniformity of the text from country to country. Uniformity of the text is one of the contributing factors to the unity among Muslims.1



However, it is necessary to point out that the editions of the Koran printed in Istanbul, the then capital of the Ottoman empire, added missing letters to some words such as the letter a in 'alamin and in muslimat. In 1988, the Publishing house Dar al-shuruq (in Cairo and Beirut) published a version of the Koran entitled Al-Mushaf al-muyassar (the facilitated Koran) with references at the bottom of the page in modern orthography for words written in archaic orthography. One can also raise the point that the Koranic quotations in the contemporary writings (notably periodicals meant for the general public) are often in conformity with the modern orthography, and that programs of computers use this orthography for the text of the Koran or for searching by terms. To our knowledge, the only complete version of the Koran using the modern orthography is that of the Italian translation by Gabriele Mandel Khan, published by UTET, Turin, 2004. After having hesitated for a long time, we gave up producing the version in modern orthography in order not to impinge on the holy text of Muslims.2 But we produced in our Arabic edition of the Koran in three parallel columns the Koranic orthography, the Kufi orthography and the modern orthography. To facilitate reading of the Arabic text in this translation, we give an indicative list of terms whose modern orthography differs from the original Koranic orthography, with their Kufi orthography.

Modern orthogr.

Koranic orthogr.

Kufic orthogr.

Modern orthogr.

Koranic orthogr.

Kufic orthogr.

Modern orthogr.

Koranic orthog.

Kufic orthogr.

التَّوْرَاة

التَّوۡرَىٰة

التَّورَيةِ

إِبْرَاهِيم

إِبۡرَٰهِ‍ۧمَ

إِبرَهِيمَ

أَبْصَارِهِمْ

أَبۡصَٰرُهُمۡ

أَبصَرِهِم

آَدَم

ءَادَمَ

ادَمَ

آَذَانِهِم

ءَاذَانِهِم

اذَانِهِم

إِسْرَائِيل

إِسۡرَٰٓءِيل

إِسرَيلَ

اشْتَرَاهُ

اشۡتَرَىٰهُ

اشتَرَيهُ

أَصْحَاب

أَصۡحَٰب

أَصحَب

أَعْمَالُنَا

أَعۡمَٰلُنَا

أَعمَلُنَا

آَل

ءَال

الَ

آَمَنَّا

ءَامَنَّا

امَنَّا

أَمْوَات

أَمۡوَٰت

أَموَتُ

الْأَمْوَال

الۡأَمۡوَٰل

الأَموَلِ

الْآَن

ٱلۡأٓنَ

الـنَ

الْأَنْهَار

ٱلۡأَنۡهَٰر

الأَنهَرُ

أُولُو

أوْلُواْ

أُوْلُواْ

بِآَخِذِيهِ

بِ‍َٔاخِذِيهِ

بِ‍اخِذِيهِ

بِالْبَاطِلِ

بِٱلۡبَٰطِلِ

بِالبَطِلِ

بِالْكَافِرِين

بِٱلۡكَٰفِرِين

بِالكَفِرِينَ

بِآَيَات

بِ‍َٔايَٰت

بِ‍ايَتِ

بِغَافِلٍ

بِغَٰفِلٍ

بِغَفِلٍ

الْبَيِّنَات

الۡبَيِّنَٰت

بِالبَيِّنَتِ

تِجَارَتُهُمْ

تِّجَٰرَتُهُمۡ

تِّجَرَتُهُم

تُسْأَلُون

تُسۡ‍َٔلُونَ

تُس‍لُونَ

تَظَاهَرُون

تَظَٰهَرُونَ

تَظَهَرُونَ

ثَلَاثَة

ثَلَٰثَة

ثَلَثَةِ

الثَّمَرَات

الثَّمَرَٰتِ

الثَّمَرَتِ

جَنَّات

جَنَّٰت

جَنَّت

الْحَيَاة

ٱلۡحَيَوٰة

الحَيَوةِ

خَاسِئِين

خَٰسِ‍ِٔين

خَسِ‍ينَ

خَالَاتِك

خَٰلَٰتِك

خَلَتِكَ

خَالِدُونَ

خَٰلِدُونَ

خَلِدُونَ

خَطَايَاكُمْ

خَطَٰيَٰكُمۡ

خَطَيَكُم

رَبَّانِيِّين

رَبَّٰنِيِّ‍ۧنَ

رَبَّنِيِّ‍نَ

رَزَقْنَاهُمْ

رَزَقۡنَٰهُمۡ

رَزَقنَهُم

الزَّكَاة

ٱلزَّكَوٰة

الزَّكَوةَ

سُلَيْمَان

سُلَيۡمَٰن

وَسُلَيمَنَ

سَمَوَات

سَمَٰوَٰتٖ

سَمَوَت

شَهَادَة

شَهَٰدَة

شَهَدَةً

شَيَاطِينِهِمْ

شَيَٰطِينِهِمۡ

شَيَطِينِهِم

الصَّالِحَاتِ

ٱلصَّٰلِحَٰتِ

الصَّلِحَتِ

الصِّرَاطَ

ٱلصِّرَٰطَ

الصِّرَطَ

الصَّلَاةَ

ٱلصَّلَوٰة

الصَّلَوةَ

الضُّعَفَاءُ

ٱلضُّعَفَٰٓؤُاْ

الضُّعَفَؤُاْ

الضَّلَالَة

ٱلضَّلَٰلَة

الضَّلَلَةُ

طُغْيَانِهِمْ

طُغۡيَٰنِهِمۡ

طُغيَنِهِم

الطَّلَاق

الطَّلَٰق

الطَّلَقَ

الْعَالَمِينَ

ٱلۡعَٰلَمِين

العَلَمِينَ

عُلَمَاءُ

عُلَمَٰٓؤُاْ

عُلَمَؤُاْ

غِشَاوَة

غِشَٰوَة

غِشَوَة

فَاؤُوا

فَآءُو

فَاو

فَسَوَّاهُنَّ

فَسَوَّىٰهُنَّ

فَسَوَّيهُنَّ

قَانِتُون

قَٰنِتُون

قَنِتُونَ

الْقِيَامَةِ

الۡقِيَٰمَةِ

القِيَمَةِ

الْكِتَاب

الۡكِتَٰب

الكِتَبَ

كَلِمَات

كَلِمَٰت

كَلِمَتُ

كَمِشْكَاةٍ

كَمِشۡكَوٰةٖ

كَمِشكَوة

اللَّاتِي

ٱلَّٰتِي

الَّتِي

اللَّاعِنُون

ٱللَّٰعِنُون

اللَّعِنُونَ

لِأَيْمَانِكُم

لِّأَيۡمَٰنِكُمۡ

لِّأَيمَنِكُم

لِلْمَلَائِكَةِ

لِلۡمَلَٰٓئِكَةِ

لِلمَلَئِكَةِ

مَالِك

مَٰلِك

مَلِكَ

مَسَاجِد

مَسَٰجِد

مَسَجِدَ

مُسْتَهْزِئُون

مُسۡتَهۡزِءُون

مُستَهزِونَ

الْمَلَأُ

ٱلۡمَلَؤُاْ

المَلَؤُاْ

مُلَاقُو

مُّلَٰقُواْ

مُّلَقُواْ

مِيثَاقِهِ

مِيثَٰقِهِ

مِيثَقِه

النَّصَارَى

ٱلنَّصَٰرَىٰ

النَّصَرَى

وَإِسْحَاق

وَإِسۡحَٰق

وَإِسحَقَ

وَإِسْمَاعِيل

وَإِسۡمَٰعِيلَ

وَإِسمَعِيلَ

وَالْحُرُمَات

وَٱلۡحُرُمَٰت

وَالحُرُمَتُ

وَالصَّابِئِين

وَٱلصَّٰبِ‍ِٔين

وَالصَّبِ‍ينَ

وَالْوَالِدَات

وَٱلۡوَٰلِدَٰتُ

وَالوَلِدَتُ

وَإِيَّايَ

وَإِيَّٰيَ

وَإِيَّيَ

وَتُؤْوِي

وَتُ‍ٔۡوِيٓ

وَتُ‍وِي

وَقُرْآَن

وَقُرۡءَان

وَقُران

وَلَّاهُم

وَلَّىٰهُمۡ

وَلَّيهُم

يَا ابْنَ أُمَّ

يَبۡنَؤُمَّ

يَبنَؤُمَّ

يَا آَدَمُ

يَٰٓـَٔادَمُ

يَـادَمُ

يَا أَهْل

يَٰٓأَهۡلَ

يَأَهلَ

يَا أُولِي

يَٰٓأُوْلِي

يَأُوْلِي

يَا أَيُّهَا

يَٰٓأَيُّهَا

يَأَيُّهَا

يَا بَنِيَّ

يَٰبَنِيٓ

يَبَنِيَّ

يَا سَامِرِيُّ

يَٰسَٰمِرِيُّ

يَسَمِرِيُّ

يَا مُوسَى

يَٰمُوسَىٰ

يَمُوسَى

يَسْأَلُونَك

يَسۡ‍َٔلُونَكَ

يَس‍لُونَكَ

يَسْتَأْخِرُونَ

يَسۡتَ‍ٔۡخِرُونَ

يَستَ‍خِرُونَ

The question of the difference between the Koranic orthography and modern orthography is to be distinguished from that of the variations of the Koran, even though the two questions tally with one another.

Some Shiites accuse 'Uthman (d. 656) of having suppressed or modified the passages of the Koran which mention 'Ali (d. 661), his political rival. Some whole chapters and several verses may have also disappeared or been truncated from the Koran compiled under 'Uthman. Muhammad Mal-Allah, a Sunnite author, gives 208 examples of falsifications alleged by the Shiites.1 Without denying that some Shiite trends may have sustained the idea of the alleged falsification of the Koran, a small anonymous piece of work, with no editor and no publisher, denies the attribution of such allegations to Shiism. It adds that allegations of falsification can be found even in greater numbers in Sunnite documents.2

These discussions irritate religious Muslims who vigorously affirm that the Koran has never been altered, contrary to the Old Testament and to the New Testament. The affirmation is part of the Islamic dogma. The Koran says: « It is we who descended the remembrance, and we who will protect it » (54/15:9). We have no intention to be drawn into such polemics. Our task is more modest and it is focused on variations of the Koran admitted by Muslim authorities themselves. Where do these variations come from?

Muslim sources narrate that 'Umar (d. 644) heard someone recite chapter 42/25 of the Koran in a manner different from what he knew. He took him to Muhammad who made each of them recite his own version and approved both of them, saying that the Koran was revealed in seven letters. Similar narrations have been reported concerning other chapters of the Koran.1 The incident reminds us of the verses 112/5:48; 52/11:118; 70/16:93; 62/42:8 which have decreed that the differences among the different communities were intended by God himself and they must therefore be tolerated. What does the term letters mean? Some hold that the Koran was revealed under seven versions which took into account the different Arab dialects in order to facilitate the accessibility of the Koran to the tribes which were not conversant with the dialect of the Qurayshites, the tribe of Muhammad. Hence the term seven letters.

Besides the revelation of the Koran in seven letters, Muslim sources speak of the different readings of the Koran. The difference in reading could be due to the fact that the initial writing of the Koran was difficult to decipher without the help of those who had memorized it. Fourteen readings were thus accepted. Each of these readings was attributed to a reader supported by a chain of guarantors going back to the Companions of Muhammad.2 The Cairo edition, the most widely spread today, favoured the reading of Hafs transmitted by 'Asim. The Tunisian edition follows the reading of Nafi' reported by Qalun, whereas the Moroccan edition of the Koran follows the reading of Nafi' reported by Warsh. These variations, according to the unanimous Islamic doctrine, are part of the revelation.3 Besides their religious value, they provide important information about the Arabic pronunciations of the different tribes, and constitute a means to understanding a Koranic text that originally was without dots and without accents. They also have legal consequences where normative passages are concerned.4

The variations of the Koran appear in the different readings of the Koran and have been transmitted by classic Islamic books. In order to avoid polemics, we have exclusively used the following modern sources approved by the Islamic religious authorities:

- 'Umar, Ahmad Mukhtar and Makram, 'Abd Al-'Al Salim: Mu'jam al-qira'at al-qur'aniyyah ma' muqaddimah fil-qira'at wa-ashhar al-qurra', 6 vols., 3rd edition, 'Alam al-kutub, Cairo, 1997. The first two editions were published by the University of Kuwait. The collection has been approved by the academy of the Islamic research of the Azhar.5

- Al-Khatib, 'Abd Al-Latif: Mu'jam al-qira'at, 11 vols., Dar Sa'd Al-Din, Damascus, 2000. The collection has been approved by the Department of ifta' and religious teaching in Syria. It often indicates, in addition to the variations, their meaning.6

- Al-Qira'at, in: http://www.altafsir.com/Recitations.asp. This website is managed by Aal Al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought, which depends on the Jordanian royal family.

These three sources indicate the variations, word by word, in the order of the chapters and the verses of the Koran, and mention the consulted classic works. It is easy for the reader to find his way around. Thus, it is not necessary to overburden our work with references to these sources.



Variations exist in great numbers. The first of the three sources quoted above indicates more than 10,000 words of the Koran that have one or several variations. As it is not possible to summarize them all, we have selected particularly those which have an influence on the meaning, constitute grammatical modification of a word, suppress or add a word or a passage and substitute a word or a passage with another. We have overlooked the variations limited to the elision of two words. The reader interested in the different types of variations can refer to our three sources. Despite this limited choice, the variations indicated in our book concern 3,462 verses out of the 6,236 of the edition of the Azhar, that is without taking into account the differences between the modern orthography and the Koranic orthography of which we spoke above. In addition, we have also left out the variations of the following terms that are often repetitive:

إبراهام، إبراهُم، إبراهِم، إبراهَم، إبرَهُم

إبراهيم

إِسْرَايِلَ، إِسْرَايِيلَ، إِسْرَيِلَ، إِسْرَائِلَ، إِسْرَالَ، إِسْرَائِنَ، أَسْرَالَ

إسرائيل

الأَنجيل

الإِنجيل

بيس

بئس

باس

بَأْس

بِيُوت

بُيُوت

ذُرِّيَة، ذِرِّيَة، ذَرِّيَة، ذَرِيَّة

ذرية

رَؤُف، رَوُوف، رَوْفٌ، رَئِف

رَؤُوف

رَبِّي، رَبُّ

رَبِّ

رُسْلُ

رُسُلُ

رُضْوان، رُضُوان

رِضْوان

السَّجْن

السِّجْن

سراط، زراط

صِرَاط

عَلَيْهُمْ، عَلَيْهُمُ، عَلَيْهُمُو، عَلَيْهِمُو، عَلَيْهِمُ، عَلَيْهِمِ، عَلَيْهِمِي، عَلَيْهُمِي

عليهِم

فيهُم

فيهِم

الْقُرَان

الْقُرْآَن

مومن

مؤمن

نبيء

نبيّ

وَهْوَ

وَهُوَ

يَا قَوْمُ

يَا قَوْمِ

يُوسَف، يُوسِف

يُوسُف

يُونِس، يُونَس، يُؤنِس

يُونُس




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