Taking the pulse of Puget Sound: Developing indicators for assessing ecosystem health

Ecosystem restoration activities in Puget Sound, a region under intense human development in Washington State, are a complex example of deliberate efforts to integrate systems (marine and terrestrial), disciplines (natural and social sciences), and stakeholders (tribes, local, state and federal agencies, non-profits, and businesses). A significant challenge for such large-scale efforts is to develop ecologically defensible indicators to track ecosystem conditions. The process of identifying a few key indicators is complicated by many factors, including uncertainty about cause and effect relationships between ecosystem components. Here, we describe our approach to develop indicators that reflect the health of terrestrial and marine bird populations dependent on Puget Sound. We evaluated species-specific indicators that were 1) ecologically meaningful and Puget Sound-wide and 2) supported by existing time series and data with enough power to detect trends. Because several species meet our criteria, our recommendation included both individual species and functional groups that characterize specific aspects of communities (e.g., interior conifer forest). However, species within the same grouping exhibited inconsistent trends, thereby complicating our interpretation of the response to restoration activities. To be effective management tools, indicators must be matched to the scale of the activities and sufficiently sensitive to reflect short-term responses.

To conserve tropical biodiversity, habitat restoration in collaboration with landowners is an important option. Efficiency, cost, and species selection are critical considerations. Current tropical reforestation knowledge lacks information on native species survival and growth rates which is necessary for effective restoration. We studied the effects of fertilizer (single application of NPK at planting) and grass maintenance (cleared 3x annually) on seedling survivorship and growth rates for two tree species: Mauria heterophylla (Anacardiaceae) and Myrcianthes "black fruit" (Myrtaceae). Survivorship at 18 months was significantly higher in maintained (~85%) as compared to unmaintained (~47%) plots for both species. However, fertilization had no effect on survivorship. While maintenance and fertilization treatments had mixed effects on relative height growth rates between the two species, both species demonstrated significantly higher relative leaf production in maintained plots, particularly when combined with fertilization. The results provide key information for the conservation of these tree species and indicate the potential for improved restoration outcomes where resources are available for fertilization and maintenance. However, given finite finances, restoration efforts should not be abandoned given the potential for a higher initial investment (e.g. planting ca. 50% more seedlings, but not pursuing grass maintenance) that results in a similar long-term outcome.

Immunocompetence has been shown to be compromised among individuals with reduced genetic diversity; however it is not known to what extent immunocompetence may influence endangered species recovery. The critically endangered Attwater's Prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri; APC) has been managed in captivity since 1992 and the current population is based on 17 founding individuals. Each year the wild APC population is supplemented with captive bred individuals, yet survival is low (21%), which could be the result of multiple factors including inbreeding. Here we explore the consequences of inbreeding in the APC population by investigating the correlation between neutral genetic diversity and individual fitness-related traits in the captive-release breeding program, specifically focusing on immunocompetence and survival. To evaluate the role of immunocompetence and inbreeding on post-release survival, all birds were sampled at release in the fall of 2011 and 2012 (n=369) and a subset of the surviving birds were re-sampled approximately five months post-release (n=59). Individual inbreeding coefficients were calculated using 12 microsatellite loci, and immunocompetence was evaluated based on multiple techniques used to assess both innate and acquired immune response. Preliminary results using the 2011 dataset suggest inbreeding coefficient and multiple immunocompetence measures at the time of release are both predictors of an individuals' survival post-release.

Despite the ubiquity of protected area systems, scienti_c evidence related to their environmental and social impacts is weak. The dearth of empirical evidence hinders resolution of an important debate: do ecosystem conservation goals conict with poverty alleviation goals in developing nations? Addressing the interplay between environmental and social outcomes requires that empirical studies consider these outcomes jointly. Furthermore, it is important for planners to understand how the environmental and socioeconomic impacts of protected areas vary with observable characteristics. Unlike previous studies that explore heterogeneous impacts of protected areas, we examine impacts on both avoided deforestation and poverty, and we use quasi-experimental non-parametric methods to estimate more informative continuous relationships between observable characteristics and outcomes. Previous studies found that Bolivia's protected areas were, on average, associated with both avoided deforestation and reductions in poverty over the past several decades. We find significant heterogeneity in these outcomes, conditional on biophysical and demographic characteristics. Further, while we find that the type of land associated with the most avoided deforestation is not necessarily the land on which we have observed the most positive socioeconomic responses, we are able to identify, and map, areas in which we might expect positive joint responses in the future.

Understanding extinction on islands is critical for biodiversity conservation, as islands harbour many vulnerable endemic species, and often serve as the last refuge for otherwise extinct species. But whether island extinction patterns can be explained by simple predictors, or are more complex functions of multiple processes, remains poorly tested. We use generalised linear mixed models and decision trees to show that extinction in 935 Australian island mammal populations is determined by interactions of introduced predators, island biogeography, and life history. In large mammal species (>2.7kg), distance from the mainland is the primary predictor of extinction, consistent with island biogeography theory. For small species (

The Inaugural National Adaptation Forum (Forum), which took place in the spring of 2013, was a convening of adaptation practitioners from around the country focused on moving beyond adaptation planning to adaptation action. The meeting proved a successful venue for scientists and managers alike to share information, case studies, methodologies, tools, and more pertaining to climate adaptation across a multitude of sectors nationwide in order to support on the ground implementation. The conference consisted of symposiums and oral and poster presentations in addition to working groups and training sessions on a variety of topics. By pursuing this format, the Forum provided professional development opportunities and contributed to the overall development of a community of practice around climate change adaptation. Development of the conference, results, and lessons learned from the National Adaptation Forum will be presented with a focus on continuing to build a community of adaptation practitioners.

Many protected areas are not functioning to protect biodiversity due to the influences of land use, climate change, and invasive species. The goal of this paper is to illustrate the initial steps in an assessment of vulnerability to land use and climate change across 48 US National Parks. We defined protected area centered ecosystems (PACEs) around each park based on ecological principles. We quantified two components of vulnerability within each PACE for the period 1900-present and forecasted to 2100. Exposure was measured as change land use, invasive plants, and climate. Sensitivity was measured as predicted change in biome type under future climate. We found that PACES differed in exposure and sensitivity. Multivariate clustering revealed PACEs fell into five land use change classes from wildland to urban. The proportion of nonnative plants was positively correlated with land use intensity in the PACEs. Climatic warming since 1900 was highest in wildland PACEs. A few PACEs, experienced rapid increases in land use intensification, invasion and warming. Other PACEs had low levels of change in land use, climate, or invasion. Climate niche modeling under future IPCC scenarios suggests that conditions in 2030 will favor biome shifts across more than 50% of many PACEs but no biome shifts in others. Knowledge of these differences in vulnerability based on exposure and sensitivity provide a basis for crafting PACE-specific adaptation strategies.

We describe scenarios that define how rapidly fossil fuel emissions must be phased down to restore Earth's energy balance and stabilize global climate. A scenario that stabilizes climate and preserves nature is technically possible and it is essential for the future of humanity. Despite overwhelming evidence, governments and the fossil fuel industry continue to propose that all fossil fuels must be exploited before the world turns predominantly to clean energies. If governments fail to adopt policies that cause rapid phase-down of fossil fuel emissions, today's children, future generations, and nature will bear the consequences through no fault of their own. Governments must act immediately to significantly reduce fossil fuel emissions to protect our children's future and avoid loss of crucial ecosystem services, or else be complicit in this loss and its consequences.

There is an exponentially increasing amount of human-associated rubbish in our oceans. This marine debris results in a wide range of issues from introduction of adsorbed PCBs into food webs to entanglement and subsequent mortality of threatened seabirds, turtles and mammals in derelict fishing gear. While there has been a major effort afoot to publicize these issues, there remains a paucity of data and scientific research to underpin solutions to the problems. We carried out a rigorous national coastal debris survey every 100km around Australia's coastline to quantify density, types, and potential sources of marine debris. Our aim was to develop a standardized measure of the density of debris along the Australian coastline, to allow comparison of input across regions. We used a statistical model to infer how local conditions such as coastal aspect, slope, and prevailing wind direction affect debris density. We also explored variables such as distance from surrounding cities to understand factors affecting debris distributions. Citizen scientists aided in data collection and results from this work are being used to inform a proposed national container deposit scheme.

Expanding transportation corridors in national parks to incorporate recreational pathways can affect wildlife and the visitors' experience. We conducted a Before-After-Control-Impact assessment of elk (Cervus canadensis), pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana) and human responses to recreational pathway construction and use in an existing transportation corridor in Grand Teton National Park, USA, before (2007), during (2008), and two years after pathway construction (2009, 2010) in a treatment area with the pathway and a control area without it. Results suggest elk tolerated pathway activities, while pronghorn shifted farther from the road after construction in the treatment. Although bicycle and pedestrian activities increased additively with the opening of the pathway, patterns of human activities were predictable, similar to what was observed prior to the introduction of the pathway, offering a feasible explanation for the coexistence of ungulates and park visitors. Despite direct habitat loss, a wider human footprint, and a shift in pronghorn groups away from the transportation corridor, pathway activities did not appear to greatly impact ungulates or reduce visitor opportunities to see elk and pronghorn in the travel corridor. This study offers baseline ecological, social, and managerial indicators to manage non-motorized recreational transportation modes to protect visitors and wildlife, and maintain wildlife viewing opportunities, in national parks.

Globally, biodiversity offsets are becoming an increasingly utilised tool in conservation. Often, offset policies have a "like-for-like" requirement, where any permitted biodiversity loss must be offset by gains in a similar ecosystem close by. In Victoria, Australia, proposed changes to the current offset policy (in place since 2002) indicate a potential shift away from the like-for-like requirement to allow offsets that are out-of-kind and in locations based on multiple biodiversity attributes. However, little is known about the ecological consequences of out-of-kind offsets. A case study was undertaken of Melbourne, Victoria, containing multiple vegetation communities with different threat status. We modeled 3 distinct scenarios 1) strict like-for-like offsets 2) trading-up offsets (i.e. offsets in more highly threatened vegetation communities) and 3) out-of-kind offsets, based on a regional prioritisation over all vegetation classes. Vegetation clearance was concentrated in urban growth areas, and offset sites protected from future development. We analysed how the distribution of vegetation in the different threat categories changes over time under each scenario. Our results show that out-of-kind offsets have a significant impact on the distribution of offset locations and often resulted in losses of vegetation communities. Moreover, trading-up offsets, whilst beneficial for threatened vegetation, may lead to detrimental decline of non-threatened vegetation communities.

Human activities are placing ever more demands on finite natural resources, testing the limits of what our planet can support. Biodiversity is declining. Ecosystems that sustain valuable biotic communities and human livelihoods are threatened by rapid environmental change. Special interests dominate resource management decisions, with grave implications for future generations and other species. A fundamental recalibration of the relationship between humans and the environment is required to provide a coherent framework for conservation. This recalibration must be scientifically informed, ethically grounded and capable of providing clear guidance for urgent issues in conservation such as assisted migration, invasive species management, identifying the appropriate units of conservation and negotiating tensions between social aspirations and ecological imperatives. Conservation biology is crucial in articulating this recalibration and translating it into practice. This poster reports early progress of a long-term, transdisciplinary and interprofessional effort to recalibrate human-environment relations and improve conservation outcomes based on public trust principles. These include: recognition of the physical and ecological limits that bound human activities; common ownership of key resources; and consideration of the interests of all beneficiaries, including future generations, in resource management decisions at all levels of governance.

Maintaining and restoring wildlife connectivity has emerged as a major ecological concern for conservation and natural resource management. The science and practice of assessing habitat connectivity is a rapidly evolving field, making it challenging for conservation planners and resource managers to readily incorporate connectivity considerations into their activities. Recently, NatureServe and North Carolina State University collaborated on two new web resources for habitat connectivity practitioners. The NatureServe site (landscope.org) provides step-by-step guidance for new practitioners to approach the technical tasks of characterizing, assessing, and planning for wildlife connectivity. That guidance is integrally linked to a breadth of resources on NC State University's site (www.conservationcorridor.org), among others, which provides scientific background, library, digests, and examples around assessing connectivity. The landscope.org site also provides a robust online map service to identify connectivity projects and data within a practitioner's region of interest. Together these integrated websites provide an unparalleled resource to understand the issues, approaches, and solutions for maintaining and restoring wildlife connectivity. This presentation will provide a brief overview of the issues around habitat connectivity and will demonstrate the use of the web resources for obtaining information and guidance.

The field of conservation physiology seeks to use physiological tools to help assess the health and state of an organism as it adapts and responds to its environment. Glucocorticoids (GCs) or stress hormones act at baseline levels to maintain daily energy balance. However, when a prolonged or unexpected event challenges an individual, GC levels increase and their function shifts to help cope with the stressful event. For this reason, they are considered a powerful marker for conservation. While GCs have traditionally been measured from blood, this method can be difficult and invasive. As a result, GC measurement in outer integuments has become increasingly popular. It is currently assumed that corticosterone (CORT) levels in feathers represent a long-term integrated measure of GCs over the time of feather growth. However, recent results call into question the mechanisms by which CORT may be deposited in feathers, complicating the conclusions that can be drawn from interpretation of their concentrations. Here we experimentally show that CORT levels can change over the life of a feather using flight feathers obtained from a free-living breeding population of Tree Swallows (Tachycineta bicolor). Our results will provide considerations for the appropriate interpretation of feather CORT and provide insight into the mechanisms underlying CORT deposition and resiliency in feathers.

Range size is one of the most important predictors of extinction risk, and it is the most often used measure for IUCN Red List evaluation of birds. Species that live on mountain slopes have ranges that are larger than what is characterized by a flat polygon, but differences between flat area and surface area of species' ranges are apparently unstudied. Given that tropical mountains are hotspots of endemism and species richness, any systematic bias in range size estimates on tropical mountains could have important conservation consequences. We compared flat and surface area of range maps for 15 species of highland Grallaria and Grallaricula antpittas in Central and South America. We made these comparisons with two range characterizations: BirdLife International extent of occurrence polygons for global ranges, and minimum convex polygons made around occurrence records in Ecuador. We found that surface area ranged from 4-12% (mean of 8%) larger than flat area for our study species in both range characterization methods. Our results indicate that the size of montane antpitta ranges are being modestly underestimated by flat BirdLife International extent of occurrence polygons. The importance of this effect will depend on habitat quality of steep vs. flat areas, which is poorly understood in antpittas. We present these results in hopes of stimulating a discussion on the pros and cons of accounting for surface area when evaluating extinction risk.