Annex identification of different global production systems and their relative productivity
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NAFTA |
Intensive feedlot systems are a common feature of this system. Mixed crop-livestock systems across eastern United States Livestock production accounts for around 40% of agricultural production worldwide. This share is over half the world total in developed countries (FAO, 2003). In 2004, the North American beef cow herd was estimated at around 49.2 million head. Here, beef production of 14.9 million metric tons on a carcass weight equivalent (cwe) basis accounted for one quarter of global beef production. The United States produces about 80% of North American beef, while Mexico produces around 12% and Canada around 8%. This supports the figures of fertiliser use as shown in table 1.0 (Farm Foundation, 2006). |
Farms tend to be large. |
Beef cattle are fattened in intensive feedlot systems - outdoor yards in which large numbers of cattle are housed, in high densities. Pigs - hogs and swine; Broilers and eggs; Beef reared on outdoor intensive feedlots Total cattle stocks in US - 111,532 thousand heads (WRI, 2009) US meat production in 2006 – 41.081 kg *109 (WRI, 2009) Total cattle stocks in New Zealand - 9,652 heads (WRI, 2009) Canadian meat production in 2006 – 4.493 kg *109 (WRI, 2009) |
Fertilizer use is very high in the US where 25.278 kg * 109 of nutrient were used in 2005 (WRI, 2009). This equates to 109 kg/ha (WRI, 2009) This also applies to the intensive dairy and arable farming in NAFTA – no data available. Canada used 1.787 kg * 109 of nutrient fertiliser in 2005 (WRI, 2009). This equates to 287.5 kg/ha (WRI, 2009). This represents a less intensive production system with a high level of fertiliser use. |
Animals reared intensively on concentrates tend to grow faster than those grazed outdoors and tend to be more productive, both in terms of meat, milk and offspring; Migration of disease vectors as climate becomes warmer and more humid in areas further north; Shift away from traditional, small holder practices towards more intensive practices worldwide posing a dilemma over what to do with the excess nitrogen rich manure as well as emissions to atmosphere; Increasing competition for grazing land puts pressure on the land to support livestock; Rise in demand for cereal feeds as a result of increased herd sizes, thus potentially causing tension between supplies for human consumption and for livestock feed; Concern about animal welfare in increasingly intensive systems; In western United States, main concern is the salinisation of soils (Powers and Angel, 2008). Concerns over nitrogen, sulphur and GHG emissions to the atmosphere from poultry production in the United States (Powers and Angel, 2008). Arise from manure storage and housing; Significant point sources of air and water pollution due to quantity of manure/slurry; |
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EU |
Intensive feedlot systems in Spain. Mixed crop-livestock and intensive livestock farming (animals indoors permanently) – largest holdings in Malta, the Netherlands, Belgium and Denmark In 2005, the EU-27 had 9.0 million agricultural holdings. Of those agricultural holdings over 100 LSU, 53.9 % were in France, Germany and the United Kingdom. However the largest livestock farm densities are in Malta, the Netherlands, Belgium and Denmark |
Range from 0 LSU (2 988.9 holdings across EU-27) to over 100 LSU (282.9 holdings across EU-27) Of those agricultural holdings over 100 LSU, 53.9 % were in France, Germany and the United Kingdom. However the largest livestock farm densities are in Malta, the Netherlands, Belgium and Denmark |
Indoor egg and poultry meat production; Small proportion of beef production where cattle are housed indoors permanently. Cattle, sheep, pigs, goats Total cattle stocks for region – 128,218 thousand heads (WRI, 2009) |
UK: 1.502 kg * 109 which is a high level of fertiliser use. This equates to an intensity of 287.5 kg/ha (2005) (WRI, 2009). | |
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Oceania |
Sheep grazing occupies 7.1 million hectares in New Zealand, forage for 40 million sheep |
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Total cattle stocks for region – 38,730. 9,652 thousand heads cattle in New Zealand In NZ, meat production per person 349.00 kg in 2006 1.445 kg * 109 of meat produced in New Zealand; 3.941 kg * 109 of meat produced in Australia (WRI, 2009); 191.94 kg/person meat production in Australia (WRI, 2009) |
New Zealand: 418 kg * 10^6 of nutrient, which equates to an intensity in 2005 of 309.4 kg/ha – intensive due to intensity of meat production in (WRI, 2009). |
Increasing concern in NZ with respect to impacts on water quality and GHG emissions. Sheep grazing emits 5.9 Gg of N2O-N a year, compared with 6.3 Gg N2O-N from dairy cow grazing. In a study by Saggar et al (2007) emissions were suggested to be 7.4 g N2O-N per hectare per day for sheep grazed pasture; compared to 3.4 g N2O-N per hectare per day for an ungrazed site. Conclusions suggested that sheep-grazed pasture acted as a source of methane as well as a sink but was an overall annual methane sink (plus or minus 0.64/0.19 kg CH4-C ha-1). In the summer, methane consumption was highest in the summer whilst it was lower in winter, colder and wetter months. |
1.1.4 Intensive horticulture
Horticulture is the production of fruit, vegetables and flowers (often referred to as fresh produce). Fifteen per cent of the EU’s agricultural production comes from horticulture. Despite only occupying 4% of the EU’s total agricultural land, the EU is the second largest exporter of fresh produce in the world (at the time of EU-15). The region is also the biggest importer of these commodities.
The main exports of the EU are citrus fruit (1.0 million tonnes), apples (0.5 million tonnes), grapes (0.2 million tonnes) peaches and nectarines (0.2 million tonnes) onions (0.4 million tonnes) and tomatoes (0.2 million tonnes) (European Commission, 2003). The EU is also a key wine producer, accounting for 45% of all land used for wine growing, 65% of all production, 57% of global consumption and 70% of worldwide exports (European Commission, 2009). These figures highlight the intensive nature of horticulture in the EU and therefore the potential for environmental degradation.
Most fruit and vegetable production occurs in only a few EU Member States, highlighting a vulnerability should threats from climate change, extremes of weather, trade or political disputes arise. For example, Poland produces around 60% of the EU-27’s carrots and 63% of the EU-27’s tomatoes came from Italy and Spain (European Commission, 2008).
Worldwide, horticulture in 2001-2002 lead to the production of over 1,230 million tonnes of fruit and vegetables. Asia had a 61% share in this total, the EU had 9%, North and Central America also 9%, Africa 8% and South America 7% (European Commission, 2003).
In terms of inputs to horticultural production systems, a broad distinction can be made between fruit production and vegetable production. For instance, vegetables require large inputs of fertiliser which have adverse impacts on water quality while the need for intensive cultivation can have a damaging effect on soil sustainability, whereas a lot of fruit (in particular top fruit – fruit which grows on established trees) are long-term crops which can protect soil against erosion.
Bertschinger et al. (undated) suggest there are a number of concerns facing the horticulture production system. These include food safety issues (such as the bioaccumulation of pesticides), climate change, globalization and the ability of local producers to earn a fair wage. Competition from supermarkets is threatening the ability to ‘buy local’ and the continued viability of independent retailers and markets. One example of minimising pesticide use in fresh produce production is a European project called ‘ISAFRUIT’. Using innovative IT-controlled spraying technology, the project aims to reduce pesticide use by 80%, through more efficient spraying.
Despite increasing energy prices and the implications for greenhouse vegetable production, this agricultural sector may remain competitive in the coming decades.
In the future, the potential exists for the horticultural production system to provide increased employment in developing countries, by means of crop diversification into cultivation of high value crops. Asia already has a 61% share of the world total for horticultural goods. For example, in India, the Maharashtra Horticulture Development Programme provides full wages and the capital needed by small farmers, tribes and ethnic minorities for the production of fresh produce. Some farmers have been given subsidies to pay wages and inputs were provided which included planting materials, fertilisers, a new road and a website, helping make the products produced internationally competitive. Between 1996 and 2006, 213 million man-days of work were created. Between 1989 and 2001, 96% of the area planted with fruit in Maharashtra was supported by this programme. It is important to note that vegetable production is more intensive than cereal production, requiring greater inputs of fertiliser, seed and labour (WDR, 2008). This should be taken into account when considering the availability of and access to inputs, especially in developing countries where farmers might not be able to readily afford them.
In Chile, structural reforms introduced in 1974 provided farmers with greater security over the property rights of their farmland. Before this, crops were grown on an annual basis, rather than perennial, due to the farmers' unwillingness to invest. Allowing farmers to own their land has encouraged them to plant perennial crops and as a result, fruit and vegetable production has increased greatly (Avermaete, 1998).
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