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- The use of the language in various fields
CatalanIntroductionCatalan is a western Romance language (as are Spanish, Portuguese, French, etc.) spoken in an area (68,664 km2) little changed in 750 years: eastern Spain (Catalonia, pop. 1/1/00: 6,261,999; the Balearic Islands, pop. 845,630; most of the region of Valencia, total pop. 4,120,729; and a strip of eastern Aragon: la Franja); Andorra; Northern Catalonia (see section on France); and the Sardinian city of L’Alguer (Alghero). Despite the 750 km from north to south, the language shows a high degree of unity, despite identity-based attempts to fragment it. Linguists distinguish western and eastern varieties, but comprehension is mutual. The Catalan language academy is the Institute d’Estudis Catalans. Catalonia was independent from the end of the 10th century. In the 11th it federated by marriage with the kingdom of Aragon, which expanded when the Balearics Islands and Valencia were taken from the Moors (13th century). Catalan was the language of the Court in the Middle Ages, alongside Latin in documents. It began to decline in official circles after Aragon and Castile federated. Literary production, which reached maturity with Ramon Llull (1232/33-1316) and peaked in its golden age (15th century), gradually, decreased in quality and quantity. Measures to repress Catalan and impose Spanish began after the defeat of Catalonia in the War of Spanish Succession (1714), when only upper class, cultural and commercial elites in Barcelona were bilingual. The romantic revival led to a strong literary ‘Renaixença’, especially in Catalonia, but the widespread presence of Catalan in the press, schools and official circles was eliminated by Franco (1939-1975). Over 7 million people speak Catalan, by far the largest group in this Report. Despite periods of repression, speakers doubled in the 20th century, thanks to integration of in-migrants needed to fuel strong economic growth, and more recently to education. In Catalonia 75% of those aged over 2 claim to speak Catalan and 46% to be able to write it (1996 census). Both figures peak in the 10-19 year age group and were 4-7% up on 1991. Census data for Valencia and the Balearic Islands refer to 1991. A 1998 CIS survey gave the following picture: In Catalonia, 41% of adults were literate in Catalan and 74% could speak it. In Valencia, language shift seems to have halted: 55% of those in the Catalan-speaking area spoke Catalan and 12% were literate. In the Balearics, despite recent heavy immigration, 70% spoke it and 22% were literate. The three Statutes of Autonomy state that Catalan (also ‘valencià’) is official, as is Spanish. The Balearic155 and Catalan156 Statutes add that Catalan is each region’s own language, and legitimise official measures to make its use normal (the Balearic Statute incorporated this amendment in 1999). The three regional Parliaments adopted broadly similar Language Acts, in 1983 (in Catalonia and Valencia) and 1986 (in the Balearics). Valencian legislation gives Catalan less overall protection, and defines two linguistic areas: Catalan- and Spanish speaking. Catalonia’s 1983 Act was superseded by a 1998 Language Policy Act157. Sectoral laws and decrees are also relevant. All three regions have language-planning units158. Finally, Aragon’s Statute of Autonomy now has an amended Article 7: ‘Aragon’s own languages and linguistic forms will enjoy protection’. In March 2001 the regional government presented a Bill to make Catalan (and Aragonese) official in their respective areas, and in dealings with regional authorities. Social support for language policy in Catalonia is strong: 83% think all citizens of Catalonia should be able to speak Catalan, and 79% think public servants should know it. The use of the language in various fieldsEducation: In 1999-2000 89% of primary schools in Catalonia taught through Catalan (apart from Spanish language and literature, and foreign language classes); a further 8% used both Catalan and Spanish159. 51% of secondary schools taught entirely in Catalan and the rest taught several subjects in each language. So the system has been utterly transformed since Franco died in 1975, with the help of large-scale in-service training programmes. A growing number of pupils are now arriving from the third world. In Valencia the language is compulsory at all schools in the Catalan-speaking area. From 1994 to 2000, and despite a change in the regional government (or Generalitat Valenciana), primary school children in Catalan streams increased from 55,981 (in 511 schools) to 102,250 (28% of the total; in 650 schools). Data for secondary schools were 8,546 (in 46 schools, in 1994) to 30,320 (9½% of all students; in 213 schools)160. It has been claimed that the Generalitat does not ensure that teachers covering posts in such streams are linguistically competent. Escola Valenciana is an active federation of associations promoting Catalan-medium education. Finally, in the Balearic Islands, where popular support is strong, Catalan is compulsory in primary and secondary schools, and the number of schools teaching through Catalan is now increasing steadily. But the numbers of pupils of mainland Spanish or European extraction are also rising rapidly. In Catalonia 90% of university admission exams in 2000 were taken in Catalan (52% in 1991). Hundreds of textbooks in Catalan have been subsidised by the Catalan government (Generalitat de Catalunya). Overall, 60% of lectures are in Catalan, though it varies from 30% to 80%. The figure is under pressure mainly because of foreign students (2,664 Erasmus students in 1998-99). The Catalan government offers them Catalan courses (€150,000, 2000). Intercat161, a new package of language resources (co-funded by the EU) for distance learners, is expected to help; many Catalans assist foreign fellow-students through the “voluntariat lingüístic”. 32% of lectures, and 40% of admission exams, were in Catalan at the Universitat de les Illes Balears162 in 1999-2000. In Valencia, where Catalan is used less, the use of the word Catalan by universities led to a legal battle. Nearly all universities in the Catalan-speaking lands, including Perpignan, belong to the Institut Joan Lluís Vives163, and have special units to promote Catalan. The government-aided Universitat Oberta de Catalunya164, whose only campus is virtual, has 14,000 students on its degree courses in Catalan. In all three regions, language courses and certification for adult students follow the same guidelines. In 1999-2000, the public ‘Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística’ (founded by the Catalan government and local councils) organised 1,987 courses for 43,006 students. The courts: The courts have long been a monolingual bastion of Spanish. In Catalonia proper, Catalan is used in fewer than 5% of trials, though 35% of the courts have linguistically competent staff (official sources). Thanks to a project launched in October 2000 by the Generalitat, 83% of sentences were written in Catalan, and it was used orally in 74% of trials, in the 40 pilot courts. Staff used Catalan in 80% of their paperwork. The regional High Court and the Attorney General co-operated. 40 more courts (out of a total of 463) were to join in 2001. Public authorities and services: The 1983 and 1998 Language Acts laid down that Catalan is the language of all the institutions of Catalonia, particularly the Generalitat, local councils, public corporations, companies and services, the institutional media and place names. Citizens may choose the official language in their dealings with them. To guarantee citizens’ rights, civil service applicants have to display their Catalan proficiency, and civil servants transferring from elsewhere must know enough Catalan to be able to carry out the tasks assigned to them. Debates and documents in the regional Parliament are almost completely in Catalan (as happens in the Balearic Parliament). Catalan is the language normally used in local councils including formal settings such as meetings and plenary sessions; it is used in oral and written communications between public employees and citizens. Larger local councils have language regulations. But Catalan is much less widely used in local offices of State bodies, including police stations, especially in formal situations and texts.In Catalonia most public services offer customers the choice of language for contracts, invoices and information. Telephone directories, and the internal signs used by these companies and agencies, are generally bilingual, and customer services are usually available in Catalan. The language in these sectors has advanced in recent year’s thanks partly to the support of the Generalitat, the Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüística, and the language services provided by many public and private organisations. Finally, in the Balearic Islands, and especially in Valencia, the language has a much more limited presence in such services, though many are nominally bilingual. Mass media and Information technology: Five of the 14 daily newspapers published in Catalonia are entirely in Catalan: Avui (2000 sales: 30,774; and 6,385 website visitors165), El Punt (23,131), Regió 7 (c. 10,000), El 9 Nou-Vallès Occidental (2,288) and Diari de Girona (6,934). El Periódico and Segre began separate editions in Catalan in 1997 (Catalan sales: 72,310 and 5,706 respectively). 157,919 (20%) of the 783,831 papers sold daily in 1998 were in Catalan, over twice the figure in 1996. The Islands’ first Catalan-language daily, Diari de Balears166, appeared several years ago. Vilaweb167, an electronic news service in Catalan, had 15,476 daily visitors in July 2001. In 1999 the two public TV channels in Catalonia (TV3 and Canal 33) took 27% of the market, ahead of other, primarily Spanish-language, channels. 31% of a survey sample watched more TV in Catalan than in Spanish; and 34% more watched both equally. TV3 also broadcasts abroad on digital satellite TV, as does Canal 9, Valencia’s public, bilingual TV channel. Two of Catalonia’s four institutional radio stations are particularly successful: Catalunya Ràdio (559,000 daily listeners); and Catalunya Informació (136,000). In 1999, 156 FM radio stations (78% of the total) broadcast over 90% of their content in Catalan. The all-Catalan COM Ràdio, Grup Flaix and Ona Catalana are successful commercial ventures (the first is supported by the Barcelona provincial council). In 1989 the Generalitat Valenciana set up Ràdio 9168 in Catalan. Catalan is one of the top 20 Internet languages, according to the World Directory Project. Microsoft Windows 95 and 98 were available in Catalan (though only thanks to Generalitat funding; a Catalan version of Windows XP has been announced), as are Spellcheckers and much software. Softcatalà is a pioneer in this field169: it distributes Netscape Navigator and much other software. Some projects have been co-funded by the EU. Electronic magazines range from the humanities to pharmaceuticals170. The Arts: The number of books published continues to rise: from 5,281 (1994) to 7,359 (2000; 12% of all books published in Spain). Valencia has several very active Catalan-language publishers. Cultural activity in music, the stage, etc. is varied and intense. 40-60% of tickets sold in Barcelona are for plays in Catalan. Music on CD is abundant. The business world: In Catalonia, many firms require bilingual staff, especially to cover administrative posts and to serve the public. Most external institutional advertising is in Catalan, but Spanish still dominates in commercial advertising and in consumer product labelling. Though some do not comply with EU directives, almost 1,000 companies label products in Catalan or bilingually. Over 2/3 are in six sectors: wines and spirits; cakes and pastries; oil; arts and crafts; dairy products; and meat products. Three leading supermarket chains label all their own products in Catalan. On local private and public radio, most advertising (both institutional and commercial) is in Catalan. In the press, nearly all advertisements in the Catalan-language press are in Catalan, as are commercials on the two Generalitat-owned TV channels. Since 1989, the Generalitat has helped unions, business organisations and chambers of commerce to set up language services. They promote the use of Catalan, and also engage in sectoral campaigns, in co-operation with the Consorci. At least one project, managed by a union, has received EU co-funding. The government of the Balearic Islands also co-funds a consortium for the promotion of Catalan. Family and social use of the language: In a CIS survey (2001) 39½% of the adult population of Catalonia claim that Catalan is the first language they learned at home; Catalan is used, on its own or bilingually, by 64% with friends and in shops, and by 53% with members of the household. Language transmission in the home is high even in mixed families. Surveys have been carried out by CIS in Valencia and the Balearics, where language-loyalty is not as high. Trans-national exchanges: Since 1999 co-operation between the governments of Catalonia and the Balearic Islands has grown, in areas such as training language specialists, sociolinguistic maps, screening original (or dubbed) films in Catalan, marketing videos in Catalan, and disseminating terminology. The Generalitat de Catalunya and the Government of Andorra also co-operate. Specialists of the Andorran Language Service attend training seminars of the Generalitat’s language planners. The Generalitat and Perpignan University have agreed to support Catalan in pre-schools and primary schools, and in adult education; to hold International Catalan Certificate examinations in Perpignan; etc. References Farràs, J., J. Torres and F. Xavier Vila (2000) El coneixement del català. 1996. Mapa sociolingüístic de Catalunya. Anàlisi de l'enquesta oficial de població de 1996. Sèrie Estudis, 7. Generalitat de Catalunya, Publicacions de l'Institut de Sociolingüística Catalana, Barcelona. Language Policy Report 1999. http://cultura.gencat.es/llengcat/informe/ang.htm. Directory: RegData -> etudes -> document travail document travail -> Working paper a single market in financial services RegData -> European commission brussels, XXX RegData -> The european commission RegData -> Provisional agreement resulting from interinstitutional negotiations Download 1.21 Mb. Share with your friends:
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