I. Introduction/motivation II. The Arm systems

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Surface Properties and Interactions: Coupling the Land-Atmosphere

I.Introduction/motivation

II.The ARM systems

Much of the detail for these various systems would be described in Section 2. The text here would focus on the aspects that are most relevant to the surface properties and interactions. Maybe we only need a pointer to the relevant chapters here.

A.SMOS, ECOR, EBBR

The ARM site includes a number of measurements of near-surface meteorological properties including surface meteorological conditions and surface fluxes of heat, moisture, and momentum. This section could also supply a brief description of the Oklahoma Mesonet (Brock et al. 1995)

(Brock et al. 1995; Richardson et al. 2000; Brotzge and Crawford 2003)

B.SWATS network

The network of SWATS is a unique feature of the ARM SGP. The goal of this section would be to put that network into some context relative to other networks. Such measurements are not applicable in the TWP and Artic during some (or maybe all) parts of the year.

(Schneider et al. 2003)

C.ARM IOPs

Describe the most relevant ARM IOPs. There maybe overlap with other chapters, but this would focus on aspects related to land-atmosphere interactions. Table 1 includes a list of ARM IOPs that are relevant for land-atmosphere interactions developed from those listed on the ARM webpage. No consideration has been given to the magnitude of each IOP or its relative impact. Alternatively the IOPs could be discussed in section II of this chapter I with the most relevant science questions. (Will there be a master list someplace within the Monograph?)

D.Synergistic Studies

In this subsection we will present studies sponsored by other funding agencies that have made use of ARM data. Without the ARM data and infrastructure these studies either wouldn’t have happened for would have had a limited scope. [We need to come up with some kind of working definition relative IOPs that have active ARM support with those that augment ARM data.]

(Stull et al. 1997; LeMone et al. 2000; Uttal et al. 2002; Klazura et al. 2006)

III.Improving our understanding of the land-surface and its impact on weather and climate

A.Surface radiation

While this is most relevant to the chapters related to radiation and radiative closure, it could deserve some mention in this chapter because of the importance of the surface albedo that is closely related to land cover.

(Faysash and Smith 2000; Yang et al. 2008)

B.Local and regional scale fluxes

Issues related to scaling point measurements of the surface heat, moisture, and momentum fluxes to the regional scale of been an outstanding issue in the climate science community for some time. In a study relevant to the development of the ARM TWP site, Webster et al. (1996) analyzed data from TOGA COARE to examine the impact of the thermodynamic structure of the upper ocean on clouds. Peters-Lidard and Davis (2000) and Santanello et al. (2007) used data from the ARM SGP to conduct a budget studies to derive the regional scale fluxes.

(Webster et al. 1996; Peters-Lidard and Davis 2000; Shaw and Doran 2001; Santanello et al. 2007)

C.Local circulation patterns

There was an active debate in the research community from 1997 through 2002 about the relative role of surface heterogeneity in the development of local scale flows. The work of Weaver and Avissar (2001) and Weaver and Avissar (2002) suggested that the pattern of land use could have a significant impact on the local scale flows, while the work by Doran’s team indicated that such flows would only develop when the synoptic forcing was quite weak (Hubbe et al. 1997; Zhong and Doran 1998; Shaw and Doran 2001; Doran and Zhong 2002). This is a great example of ARM data and ARM supported science playing an important role in a hot science topic. There have also been studies for Nauru Island (McFarlane et al. 2005) that are focused on the impact of the island on the variables measured with the ARM instruments.

(Hubbe et al. 1997; Zhong and Doran 1998; Shaw and Doran 2001; Weaver and Avissar 2001; Doran and Zhong 2002; Weaver and Avissar 2002; McFarlane et al. 2005)

D.Boundary-layer clouds

Other chapters of the Monograph have been tasked with documenting achievements related to clouds of all types. In many instances, boundary-layer clouds are turbulently coupled to the surface, and some discussion in this chapter is warranted (this can be negotiated among all of the interested parties). ARM supported studies have been based both on observations and models (either LES or regional scale). The study of Brown et al. (2002) was the result of a Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Cloud System Study (GCSS) that was focused on a case study for shallow cumuli developed from ARM data. The CLASIC field study is an example of a large ARM sponsored study focused on linking the surface and clouds.

(Wilde et al. 1985; Zhu et al. 2001; Brown et al. 2002; Zhu and Albrecht 2002; Deng et al. 2003; Zhu and Bretherton 2004; Berg and Stull 2005; Wiedinmyer et al. 2011)

E.Carbon Cycle

Better understanding of the Carbon Cycle has been a focus of the ARM program for some time. This effort has included significant tower based (Billesbach et al. 2004) and aircraft based measurements (for example the long-term aircraft IOPs). I need to conduct an additional search to try to identify some additional papers.

(Billesbach et al. 2004; Biraud et al. 2013)

F.Parameterizations

This section would focus on parameterizations of the land surface or other boundary-layer properties. For example (Xu et al. 1999; Zhou and Xu 1999) reported on a new scheme coupling the air, vegetation and soil to better represent land-surface properties. The work of Berg and Stull (2004) included the development of a parameterization for the distribution of temperature and humidity in the convective boundary-layer. Neggers et al. (2004) used ARM data to evaluate mass flux closures. This discussion would be impacted by any decision related to boundary-layer clouds in sub-section D.

(Xu et al. 1999; Zhou and Xu 1999; Berg and Stull 2004; Neggers et al. 2004)

G.Model evaluation

There have been a large number of studies that have used ARM data from each of the different sites (SGP, TWP, NSA) to evaluate numerical models. The papers listed here have focused on the surface-atmosphere interactions or boundary-layer properties.

(Webster et al. 1996; Sud et al. 2001; Berg and Zhong 2005; Cooley et al. 2005; Dirmeyer et al. 2006; Zeng et al. 2007)

IV.Looking to the future

This will be a relatively short section that describes some of our recent work related to the land-surface and precipitation. In order to keep this section manageable, I would rather focus this section on a small area of research. This section could also point to the new ARM data streams that are coming on-line in association with the ARRA funds.

(Lamb et al. 2012; Qian et al. 2013)

V.References

Berg, L. K., and R. B. Stull, 2004: Parameterization of Joint Frequency Distributions of Potential Temperature and Water Vapor Mixing Ratio in the Daytime Convective Boundary Layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 813-828.

Berg, L. K., and S. Zhong, 2005: Sensitivity of MM5-Simulated Boundary Layer Characteristics to Turbulence Parameterizations. J. Applied Meteor., 44, 1467-1483.

Berg, L. K., and R. B. Stull, 2005: A Simple Parameterization Coupling the Convective Daytime Boundary Layer and Fair-Weather Cumuli. J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 1976-1988.

Billesbach, D. P., M. L. Fischer, M. S. Torn, and J. A. Berry, 2004: A Portable Eddy Covariance System for the Measurement of Ecosystem–Atmosphere Exchange of CO2, Water Vapor, and Energy. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 21, 639-650.

Biraud, S. C., M. S. Torn, J. R. Smith, C. Sweeney, W. J. Riley, and P. P. Tans, 2013: A multi-year record of airborne CO2 observations in the US Southern Great Plains. Atmos. Meas. Tech., 6, 751-763.

Brock, F. V., K. C. Crawford, R. L. Elliott, G. W. Cuperus, S. J. Stadler, H. L. Johnson, and M. D. Eilts, 1995: THE OKLAHOMA MESONET - A TECHNICAL OVERVIEW. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 12, 5-19.

Brotzge, J. A., and K. C. Crawford, 2003: Examination of the Surface Energy Budget: A Comparison of Eddy Correlation and Bowen Ratio Measurement Systems. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 4, 160-178.

Brown, A. R., R. T. Cederwall, A. Chlond, and Coauthors, 2002: Large-eddy simulation of the diurnal cycle of shallow cumulus convection over land. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 128, 1075-1093.

Cooley, H. S., W. J. Riley, M. S. Torn, and Y. He, 2005: Impact of agricultural practice on regional climate in a coupled land surface mesoscale model. J. Geophys. Res., 110.

Deng, A., N. L. Seaman, and J. S. Kain, 2003: A Shallow-Convection Parameterization for Mesoscale Models. Part II: Verification and Sensitivity Studies. J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 57-78.

Dirmeyer, P. A., R. D. Koster, and Z. Guo, 2006: Do Global Models Properly Represent the Feedback between Land and Atmosphere? Journal of Hydrometeorology, 7, 1177-1198.

Doran, J. C., and S. Zhong, 2002: Comments on “Atmospheric Disturbance Caused by Human Modification of the Landscape”. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 83, 277-279.

Faysash, D. A., and E. A. Smith, 2000: Simultaneous Retrieval of Diurnal to Seasonal Surface Temperatures and Emissivities over SGP ARM–CART Site Using GOES Split Window. J. Applied Meteor., 39, 971-982.

Hubbe, J. M., J. C. Doran, J. C. Liljegren, and W. J. Shaw, 1997: Observations of Spatial Variations of Boundary Layer Structure over the Southern Great Plains Cloud and Radiation Testbed. J. Applied Meteor., 36, 1221-1231.

Klazura, G. E., D. R. Cook, R. L. Coulter, and Coauthors, 2006: Atmospheric Boundary Layer Measurements in South-Central Kansas, 1997–2004. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 87, 1319-1324.

Lamb, P. J., D. H. Portis, and A. Zangvil, 2012: Investigation of Large-Scale Atmospheric Moisture Budget and Land Surface Interactions over U.S. Southern Great Plains including for CLASIC (June 2007). Journal of Hydrometeorology, 13, 1719-1738.

LeMone, M. A., R. L. Grossman, R. L. Coulter, and Coauthors, 2000: Land–Atmosphere Interaction Research, Early Results, and Opportunities in the Walnut River Watershed in Southeast Kansas: CASES and ABLE. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 81, 757-779.

McFarlane, S. A., C. N. Long, and D. M. Flynn, 2005: Impact of island-induced clouds on surface measurements: Analysis of the ARM Nauru Island Effect Study data. J. Applied Meteor., 44, 1045-1065.

Neggers, R. A. J., A. P. Siebesma, G. Lenderink, and A. A. M. Holtslag, 2004: An Evaluation of Mass Flux Closures for Diurnal Cycles of Shallow Cumulus. Mon. Wea. Rev., 132, 2525-2538.

Peters-Lidard, C. D., and L. H. Davis, 2000: Regional Flux Estimation in a Convective Boundary Layer Using a Conservation Approach. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 1, 170-182.

Qian, Y., M. Huang, B. Yang, and L. K. Berg, 2013: A Modeling Study of Irrigation Effects on Surface Fluxes and Land-Air-Cloud Interactions in the Southern Great Plains. Journal of Hydrometeorology.

Richardson, S. J., M. E. Splitt, and B. M. Lesht, 2000: Enhancement of ARM Surface Meteorological Observations during the Fall 1996 Water Vapor Intensive Observation Period. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 17, 312-322.

Santanello, J. A., M. A. Friedl, and M. B. Ek, 2007: Convective Planetary Boundary Layer Interactions with the Land Surface at Diurnal Time Scales: Diagnostics and Feedbacks. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 8, 1082-1097.

Schneider, J. M., D. K. Fisher, R. L. Elliott, G. O. Brown, and C. P. Bahrmann, 2003: Spatiotemporal Variations in Soil Water: First Results from the ARM SGP CART Network. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 4, 106-120.

Shaw, W. J., and J. C. Doran, 2001: Observations of Systematic Boundary Layer Divergence Patterns and Their Relationship to Land Use and Topography. J. Climate, 14, 1753-1764.

Stull, R., E. Santoso, L. Berg, and J. Hacker, 1997: Boundary Layer Experiment 1996 (BLX96). Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 78, 1149-1158.

Sud, Y. C., D. M. Mocko, G. K. Walker, and R. D. Koster, 2001: Influence of Land Surface Fluxes on Precipitation: Inferences from Simulations Forced with Four ARM–CART SCM Datasets. J. Climate, 14, 3666-3691.

Uttal, T., J. A. Curry, M. G. McPhee, and Coauthors, 2002: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 83, 255-275.

Weaver, C. P., and R. Avissar, 2001: Atmospheric Disturbances Caused by Human Modification of the Landscape. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 82, 269-281.

——, 2002: Reply. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 83, 280-283.

Webster, P. J., C. A. Clayson, and J. A. Curry, 1996: Clouds, Radiation, and the Diurnal Cycle of Sea Surface Temperature in the Tropical Western Pacific. J. Climate, 9, 1712-1730.

Wiedinmyer, C., S. K. Akagi, R. J. Yokelson, L. K. Emmons, J. A. Al-Saadi, J. J. Orlando, and A. J. Soja, 2011: The Fire INventory from NCAR (FINN): a high resolution global model to estimate the emissions from open burning. Geosci. Model Dev., 4, 625-641.

Wilde, N. P., R. B. Stull, and E. W. Eloranta, 1985: The LCL Zone and Cumulus Onset. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 24, 640-657.

Xu, Q., B. Zhou, S. D. Burk, and E. H. Barker, 1999: An Air–Soil Layer Coupled Scheme for Computing Surface Heat Fluxes. J. Applied Meteor., 38, 211-223.

Yang, F., K. Mitchell, Y.-T. Hou, Y. Dai, X. Zeng, Z. Wang, and X.-Z. Liang, 2008: Dependence of Land Surface Albedo on Solar Zenith Angle: Observations and Model Parameterization. J. Appl. Meteor. Climat., 47, 2963-2982.

Zeng, X., W.-K. Tao, M. Zhang, and Coauthors, 2007: Evaluating Clouds in Long-Term Cloud-Resolving Model Simulations with Observational Data. J. Atmos. Sci., 64, 4153-4177.

Zhong, S., and J. C. Doran, 1998: An Evaluation of the Importance of Surface Flux Variability on GCM-Scale Boundary-Layer Characteristics Using Realistic Meteorological and Surface Forcing. J. Climate, 11, 2774-2788.

Zhou, B., and Q. Xu, 1999: Computing Surface Fluxes from Mesonet Data. J. Applied Meteor., 38, 1370-1383.

Zhu, P., and B. Albrecht, 2002: A Theoretical and Observational Analysis on the Formation of Fair-Weather Cumuli. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 1983-2005.

Zhu, P., and C. S. Bretherton, 2004: A Simulation Study of Shallow Moist Convection and Its Impact on the Atmospheric Boundary Layer. Mon. Wea. Rev., 132, 2391-2409.

Zhu, P., B. Albrecht, and J. Gottschalck, 2001: Formation and Development of Nocturnal Boundary Layer Clouds over the Southern Great Plains. J. Atmos. Sci., 58, 1409-1426.
Table 1. ARM IOPs with significant land-atmosphere components

IOP	Year	Focus	PI
Land Cover	1993	Satellite derived land cover	N/A
Sampling of Coherent Structures with the 915 MHz profiler	1994, 1995	Measure fluctuations in the vertical wind and index of refraction	Richard Coulter
GCIP Near Surface Observation IOP	1996	N/A	Ted Cress
SGP '97 (Hydrology) IOP	1997	Test retrieval algorithms for remote sensing of surface soil moisture	Tom Jackson
Surface Heat Budget of the Artic Ocean (SHEBA)	1997-1998	Ship- and airborne measurement of surface properties and energy fluxes in the Arctic	Richard Moritz
Nauru99 Campaign	1999	Chris Fairall
SGP99	1999	Tom Jackson
Precision Gas Samping (PGS) Validation Field Campaign	2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007	Testing of equipment to measure CO2 and energy fluxes	Marc Fischer
Nauru Island Effect Study	2001-2003	Study of the impacts of the island of the island of Nauru	Charles Long
Water Cycle Pilot Study Intensive Observations	2002	Feasibility study to determine if the components of the surface water budget can be accurately measured	Marvin Wesely
Boundary Layer Cloud Test IOP	2003	Study of relationships between surface properties and low-level stratus in the Arctic.	William Shaw
Marine Stratus Radiation Aerosol and Drizzle (MASRAD) IOP	2005	AMF deployment to Pt. Reyes National Seashore to investigate relationships between boundary-layer clouds, microphysics and aerosol.	Mark Miller
Boundary Layer CO2 Using CW Lidar	2005	Research flights conducted to validate CW lidar	Michael Dobbs
Boundary Layer Cloud IOP	2005	Study to determine the extent to which land-surface properties impact low-level Arctic clouds	William Shaw
High Latitude Optical Turbulence Characterization	2005	Study to characterize near-surface atmospheric turbulence using using a reciprocal-path scintillometer sensor	Gail Vaucher
Radiative Divergence using AMF, GERB, and AMMA Stations (RADAGAST)	2006	Mult-agency study designed to improve our understanding of the surface energy budget.	Anthony Slingo
CO2flx-Ameriflux-Intercomparison	2006	Intercomparision of ARM fluxes measurements using the Ameriflux Roving Instrument System.	Marc Fisher
HydroKansas	2006-2009	Long-term study to develop and test new methods for representing coupling between the atmosphere and the land-surface	Vijay Gupta
Aircraft Carbon	2006-2008	Study including airborne measurements of CO2, CO, CH4, and 13CO2	Margaret Torn
Radon Measurements of Atmospheric Mixing (RAMIX)	2006-2008	Measurements of radon in and above the boundary-layer to provide estimates of mixing across the boundary-layer top.	Marc Fisher
Cloud-Land Surface Interaction Campaign (CLASIC)	2007	CLASIC was focused on investigating linkages between surface properties and shallow cumuli.	Mark Miller

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