Kurebwa mercy thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for doctor of philosophy
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- 1.16 DEFINITION OF TERMS
- CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
- 2.1 WHAT IS ASSESSMENT
1.15 ORGANISATON OF THE STUDYThe study was organised into five chapters. Each chapter provided a specific aspect of the study. The content of each chapter was briefly explained below. Chapter one is the orientation chapter. Its purpose is to provide the reader with an indication of what to expect in the research report. The chapter covers the Background of the study, Rationale for the study, Statement of the problem, Aims and Objectives of the study, Research questions, Assumptions of the study, Delimitation of the study, Definition of terms, Theoretical / Conceptual framework, Limitations of the study and Ethical considerations. Chapter two consists of a review and analysis of related literature, which provides a conceptual and theoretical framework of the study. The research methodology, design, and insruments used to collect data, were dealt with in Chapter three. It discusses how the study was designed and conducted. The Chapter also justifies the research design used. Research instruments used to collect data are also described and explained. Chapter four presents data analyses and discusses the data collected in order to find answers to questions raised earlier in the study. Finally, Chapter five gives a summary of the whole study, draws conclusions based on the research findings and makes recommendations and suggestions for further research. 1.16 DEFINITION OF TERMSAssessment: In this study, the key term assessment is used to mean the gathering and analysis of learners’ abilities, with the aim of improving teaching, learning and decision-making about learners. It is used in the sense in which Gronlund (2000) uses it. In the study of Formative Assessment: Mapping the Road to Success Marshall (2005) defines assessment as involving the gathering and interpreting of information about learner performance to determine mastery toward defined learning objectives. Other terms that are in the study are explained as follows; Primary school: A formal educational institute in Zimbabwe that offers learning from Grade zero to seven. Lecturer: One who directs learners at an institution of higher learning? School Head Teacher: Refers to the person in charge of the lives and welfare of teachers and pupils at a school and is accountable for the successes and failures of the institution under his/her counsel. Deputy Head Teacher: A person, second in command to the school head teacher and assists the head in managing the activities of the school. Resources: These are materials that can enhance effective assessment. These may include finances, time, equipment and human resources to facilitate assessment. Teachers’ College: An institute of higher learning where teachers are trained Teacher: Someone who guides and directs the learners. The individual is thus responsible for giving instructions and guidance to a specific class or classes. Assessment problems: Impediments or hindrances that inhibit effective assessment procedures in the schools. Hot sitting: A situation in the school where there are double sessions. Some pupils attend lessons in the morning from 8 o’clock to 12 o’clock while other pupils attend lessons during the afternoon from 12 o’clock 5’oclock in the same school and using the same facilities. Group A school: A school in the low density area which used to cater for whites only before independence. Group B school: A School in the high density area in town which used to carter for black pupils before independence. Officer: One who occupies an official position within the Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture or ZIMSEC. ZIMSEC: An organisation in Zimbabwe which manages summative examinations in all schools in Zimbabwe. Special rooms: These are classrooms used by specialist teachers when teaching pupils. Such rooms are for example the home economics room, music room just to name a few. Test: A piece of classroom assessment information designed to measure skills, performance, capabilities, intelligents, and aptitude of an individual or group. Chapter one is the orientation chapter. It provided the reader with an indication of what to expect in the research report. The chapter covered the Background of the study, Rationale for the study, Statement of the problem, Aims and Objectives of the study, Research questions, Assumptions of the study, Delimitation of the study, Definition of terms, Conceptual framework, Limitations of the study and Ethical considerations.Finally the chapter provided the organisation of the study. The next chapter focuses on Review of Related Literature. CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE2.0 INTRODUCTIONChapter one dealt with, among other things, the background to the study, rationale of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research questions, assumptions of the study, significance of the study, delimitation of the study, definition of terms and theoretical framework. This chapter seeks to highlight and discuss issues related to works of authorities with regard to challenges of assessment problems in the schools. An attempt to define the term assessment will be made, the rationale for assessment and the different forms of assessment will be highlighted. Literature on teacher competencies, perceptions, emerging models of assessment and assessment paradigms will be exposed. Finally, the review of related literature will look at assessment procedures in the Zimbabwean schools as well as challenges that are encountered by teachers in carrying out assessment in schools. 2.1 WHAT IS ASSESSMENT?Assessment is the bedrock of an effective teaching and learning environment. If we wish to discover the truth about an educational system we must look into its assessment procedures (Rowntree, 1977:1). Regular, reliable and timely assessment is key to improving learning and enhancing the quality of education (UNESCO, 2005). Black & William (1998b) define assessment as broadly including all activities that teachers and learners undertake to get information that can be used diagnostically to alter teaching and learning. According to McMunn (2000:6) Assessment is an ongoing process through which teachers and learners interact to promote greater learning .The assessment process involves using a range of strategies to make decisions regarding instruction and gathering information about learner performance or behaviour in order to diagnose learner problems monitor their progress, give feedback for improvement. The classroom assessment process also involves using multiple methods of obtaining learner information through a variety of assessment strategies such as written test, interviews, observation and performance tasks. Pellegrino et al (2001: 25) argued, “Improvements in learning will depend on how well assessment, curriculum, and instruction are aligned and reinforce a common set of learning goals, and on whether instruction shifts in response to the information gained from assessment”. The use of a variety of techniques of assessment provides information for instructional improvement and for monitoring learner learning (Angelo & Cross, 1993). The central purpose of assessment is to provide information on learner achievement and progress and set direction for ongoing teaching and learning (North South Wales [NSW]-Department of Education, 2007). The term assessment is derived from the Latin word ‘assidere’, which means, ‘to sit down beside’ (National Council Curriculum Assessment (NCCA, 2004:23). If one combines this word with education which can be traced back to the Latin ‘educare’ (to bring out), educational assessment should be seen as sitting beside the learners and bringing out the potential that exists within them, creating an opportunity for them to demonstrate what they are able to do (Conner, 1991:xi). According to Mathematical Association of America [MAA] (2009), the word assessment did not emerge from the classroom, it was derived from an idea in educators, that of sitting down beside or together with. They further to argue that, in the late seventeenth century, an assessor was one “who sits beside” or “who shares others’ position”. Early use of the word focused primarily on determining the worth or value of something in monetary terms, but underlying those uses was the idea of expert judgment made on the basis of careful observation (MAA, 2009). For the purposes of this research, assessment is used in the sense of judging the extent of learner learning. Kizlick (2009) defines assessment as a process by which information is obtained relative to some known objective goal. It is a process of gathering, recording, interpreting, using and communicating information about a child’s progress and achievement during the development of knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes (NCCA, 2004:23). Pollard & Bourne (1994:220) suggest the following principles of assessment: Assessment must be used as a continuous part of the teaching and learning process, involving pupils, wherever possible as well as teachers in identifying next steps. Assessment for any purpose should serve the purpose of improving learning by exerting a positive force on the curriculum at all levels. Assessment must provide an effective means of communication with parents and other partners in the learning enterprise in a way which helps them support pupils’ learning. The choice of different assessment procedures must be decided on the basis of the purpose for which the assessment is being undertaken. This may well mean employing different techniques for different assessment purposes. Assessment must be used fairly as part of information gathering for judging the effectiveness of schools. This means taking into account contextual factors which, as well as the quality of teaching, affect the achievement of pupils. Citizens have the right to detailed and reliable information about the standards being achieved across the nation through the educational system. Gipps et. al., (1995:10-11) summarise assessment as involving: a broad appraisal including many sources of evidence and many aspects of a pupil's knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes; or to a particular occasion or instrument....any method or procedure, formal or informal, for producing information about pupils: e.g., [sic] a written test paper, an interview schedule, a measurement task using equipment, a class quiz. (pp. 10-11) Pupils and probably many adults, see assessment as another word for testing which is designed to find out if they know something (Torrance & Pryor, 2001). A test is a special form of assessment but not all assessments are tests (Kizlick, 2009). A test is, “an instrument for measuring a sample of behavior” and measurement “the process of obtaining a numerical description of the degree to which an individual possesses a certain trait” Linn and Miller (2005:26). Tests are generally one piece of classroom assessment information, designed to measure skills, performance, capabilities intelligence ,or aptitude of an individual or group (McMunn,2011).Tests are constructed to meet a specific need or purpose, such as individual diagnosis, summative assessment, or individual achievement or school accountability. Furthermore, some educators also conceive assessment to mean measurement and evaluation, and yet the terms are different as will be exposed. Assessment involves much more than testing. It is an on-going process that encompasses many formal and informal activities designed to monitor and improve teaching/ learning in all areas of the curriculum (NCCA, 2004:23). The term assessment refers to all activities teachers use to help learners learn and to gauge the learners’ progress. Thus, assessment is a process of collecting learner information in the classroom, it is the gathering of information and a tool that informs and encourages learner growth. According to Lin & Gronlund (2000:3), “Measurement is a process of collecting quantitative data representing the degree of existence in any entity or characteristic by use of such approaches as multiple choice tests and essays”. They went on to argue that, evaluation is the decision on the value judgment of the measurement result in respect to pre-specified criteria. McMunn (2011:2) argues, “Evaluation is a judgment regarding the quality or worth of the assessment results”. This evaluation process goes beyond just collecting information; however, evaluation is concerned with making judgments about the collection”. The decision to pass or fail and grade assigning to learner learning outcomes is a function of measurement and evaluation. Pate (2010:14) views evaluation as any systematic process of determining: the extent to which specified educational objectives, previously identified, are attained; the effectiveness of the learned experiences provided in the classroom; and how well the goals of education have been accomplished. Finally, Linn and Gronlund (2000:23) posit that, “Assessment is a full range of procedures used to gain information about learners learning through (observations, rating of performance, paper and pencil tests) and the formation of value judgments.” Evaluation is as good as the assessment information collected. It is important for the teachers to use both measurement and evaluation in order to thoroughly assess pupils. Zimbabwean teachers are most likely unclear about this distinction; hence, the probability is high that they do not really know fully what they are doing during assessment. As such, an assessment problem may emanate from their misconceptions of these assessment terms. E  
Learner Involvement 
Figure 1.1 Classroom Assessment Cycle: McMunn: 2011 According to a McMunn (2011) the cycle forms a working design upon which teachers can build their assessment knowledge and it illustrates a thinking process that gets to the heart of formative assessment. The classroom assessment cycle is now explained in the following section. 1. Learning targets The first step of the whole assessment for learning process is the establishment of learner learning goals (Wiggins & McTighe, 2000) what is worthy and requiring understanding (DeMeester & Jones, 2009: 5).Learning goals are clearly defined so that learners understand them. Learner understanding of goals has critical motivational and cognitive impacts (Brookhart, Andolina, Zuza, & Furman, 2004). As learners develop agency and self-worth (Covington, 1992) while accurately appraising their own work (Sadler, 1989). Assessment gathers and uses information about learners’ knowledge and performance to close the gap between learners’ current learning state and the desired state by pedagogical actions (Shavelson, 2006:3). 2. Gathering evidence Assessment must collect quality evidence of learning in order to be effective. Teachers use a multiple and diverse assessment in order to produce a fuller and clearer view of how well learners meet the learning targets (McMunn, 2011). 3. Inference, analysis and interpretation of data Teachers determine what assessment result means and what they say about how learners are learning and how learning might be improved (McMunn, 2011). Teachers’ skills in drawing inferences from learners’ responses are crucial to the effectiveness of formative assessment (Heritage, 2007:144). Cognisant of this, Heritage (2007:143) identifies the following five components of the learners’ previous learning. Learners’ level of knowledge in a specific content area. Their understanding of concepts in the content area. The level of their skills specific to the content area. The attitudes the learners are developing. Learners’ level of language proficiency. A critical component of quality formative assessment is the teachers’ use of the evidence obtained from learners’ performance on assessment tasks to adjust instruction and to guide learners in adjusting their learning strategies (DeMeester & Jones, 2009:7). Teachers’ skills in drawing inferences from learners’ responses are crucial to the effectiveness of formative assessment (Heritage, 2007: 144). 4. Instructional plans and modifications New or modified instructional plans are designed to meet learner’s needs revealed by inferences and interpretations made. According to Shute (2008:154), “Formative, or descriptive feedback is information communicated to the learner that is intended to modify his or her thinking or behaviour for the purpose of improving learning.” Black & William (2009:9) contend that, “since the responsibility for learning rests with both the teacher and the learner, it is incumbent on each to do all they can to mitigate the impact of any failures of the other.” To use assessment in the process of learning, Shepard (2000) asks educators to consider the changes necessary in classroom practices that would enable assessment to be used as part of the learning process. The assessment cycle may be affected by the framework within which assessment and evaluation are carried out. The next paragraphs explain the frame-work of assessment. Directory: dspace -> bitstream bitstream -> A study of Major League Baseball team salary structure analysis bitstream -> Orde wingate and the british army, 1922-1944: Military Thought and Practice Compared and Contrasted dspace -> Developing air cargo operations at regional airports: a case study of East Midlands Airport, uk dspace -> Tactics of interruption dspace -> Advances in Imaging from the first x-ray Images bitstream -> ¡no te dejes quitar a tu hijo! Operation pedro pan and the cuban children’s program Download 1.72 Mb. Share with your friends:
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ffective classroom assessment follows a cycle as suggested by (McMunn, 2011). The following diagram depicts the assessment cycle.