The Project Gutenberg ebook of a brief History of the United States

France by a treaty of alliance and a treaty of commerce; we were bound to

Great Britain by no treaty of any kind. To be neutral, then, was to be

ungrateful to France. [10] As a result the Federalists were called the

British party, and they, in turn, called the Republicans the French party

or Democrats.
[Illustration: WASHINGTON'S COACH.]
GREAT BRITAIN SEIZES OUR SHIPS.--To preserve neutrality under such

conditions would have been hard enough, but Great Britain made it harder

still by seizing American merchant ships that were carrying lumber, fish,

flour, and provisions to the French West Indies. [11]

attempted to retaliate on Great Britain in a way that might have brought

on war. In this they failed, but Congress laid an embargo for a short

time, preventing all our vessels from sailing to foreign ports; and money

was voted to build fortifications at the seaports from Maine to Georgia,

and for building arsenals at Springfield (Mass.) and Carlisle (Pa.), and

for constructing six frigates. [12]
Washington did not wish war, and with the approval of the Senate sent

Chief-Justice John Jay to London to make a treaty of friendship and

commerce with Great Britain.
JAY'S TREATY, when ratified (1795), was far from what was desired. But it

provided for the delivery of the posts on our northern frontier, its other

provisions were the best that could be had, and it insured peace. For this

reason among others the treaty gave great offense to the Republicans, who

wanted the United States to quarrel with Great Britain and take sides with

France. They denounced it from one end of the country to the other, burned

copies of it at mass meetings, and hanged Jay in effigy. For the same

reason, also, France took deep offense.

Spain, by which the vexed question of the Mississippi was put at rest.

Spain agreed to withdraw her troops from all her posts north of the

parallel of 31 degrees. She also agreed that New Orleans should be a port

of deposit. This was of great advantage to the growing West, for the

farmers, thereafter, could float their bacon, flour, lumber, etc. down the

Ohio and the Mississippi to New Orleans and there sell it for export to

the West Indies or Europe.

ADDRESS. In the Lenox Library, New York.]

now declined to serve a third time, and in September, 1796, announced his

determination by publishing in a newspaper what is called his _Farewell

Address_. [13] There was no such thing as a national party convention

in those days, or for many years to come. The Federalists, however, by

common consent, selected John Adams as their candidate for President, and

most of them supported Thomas Pinckney for Vice President. The Republicans

put forward Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr and others. The French

minister to our country used his influence to help the Republican

candidates; [14] but when the election was over, it turned out that Adams

[15] was chosen President and Jefferson Vice President. Pinckney, the

Federalist candidate for Vice President, was defeated because he failed to

receive the votes of all the Federalist electors. [16]
THE X. Y. Z. AFFAIR.--The French Directory, a body of five men that

governed the French Republic, now refused to receive a minister whom

Washington had just sent to that country (Charles G. Pinckney). This

deliberate affront to the United States was denounced by Adams in his

first message to Congress; but he sent to Paris a special commission

composed of two Federalists and one Republican, [17] in an earnest effort

to keep the peace. These commissioners were visited by three agents of the

Directory, who told them that before a new treaty could be made they must

give a present of $50,000 to each Director, apologize for Adams's

denunciation of France, and loan a large sum (practically pay tribute

money) to France.
In reporting this affair to Congress the Secretary of State concealed the

names of the French agents and called them Mr. X, Mr. Y, and Mr. Z. This

gave the affair the name of the X. Y. Z. Mission.
PREPARATION FOR WAR WITH FRANCE (1798).--The reading of the dispatches in

Congress caused a great change in feeling. The country had been insulted,

and Congress, forgetting politics, made preparations for war. An army was

raised and Washington made lieutenant general. The Navy Department was

created and the first Secretary of the Navy appointed. Ships were built,

purchased, and given to the government; and with the cry, "Millions for

defense, not a cent for tribute," the people offered their services to the

President, and labored without pay in the erection of forts along the

seaboard. Then was written by Joseph Hopkinson, of Philadelphia, and sung

for the first time, our national song _Hail, Columbia_! [18]

wisely. But the Federalists, whom the trouble with France had placed in

control of Congress, also passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, which

aroused bitter opposition.

our country fourteen years before they could be naturalized and become

citizens; (2) a law giving the President power, for the next two years, to

send out of the country any alien he thought to be dangerous to the peace

of the United States; and (3) the Alien Enemies Act for the expulsion, in

time of war, of the subjects of the hostile government.

or wrote in a seditious manner, that is, opposed the execution of any law

of the United States, or wrote, printed, or uttered anything with intent

to defame the government of the United States or any of its officials.

Sedition Act was rigorously enforced with fines and imprisonment. Such

interference with the liberty of the press cost Adams much of his

popularity.

excited by the Alien and Sedition Acts, and at the suggestion of Jefferson

resolutions condemning them as unconstitutional [19] and hence "utterly

void and of no force" were passed by the legislatures of Kentucky and

Virginia.
[Illustration: THE ENTERPRISE.]
Seven states answered with resolutions declaring the acts constitutional.

Whereupon, in the following year (1799), Kentucky declared that when a

state thought a law of Congress unconstitutional, that state might veto or

nullify it, that is, forbid its citizens to obey it. This doctrine of

nullification, as we shall see, was later of serious importance.
THE NAVAL WAR WITH FRANCE.--Meantime, the little navy which had been so

hastily prepared was sent to scour the seas around the French West Indies,

and in a few months won many victories. [20] The publication of the X. Y.

Z. letters created almost as much indignation in France as in our country,

and forced the Directory to send word that if other commissioners came,

they would be received. Adams thereupon appointed three; but when they

reached France the Directory had fallen from power, Napoleon was ruling,

and with him a new treaty was concluded in 1800.

these, coupled with the Alien and Sedition Acts, did much to bring about

the defeat of the Federalists. Their candidates for the presidency and

vice presidency were John Adams and Charles C. Pinckney. The Republicans

nominated Jefferson [21] and Aaron Burr, and won. Unfortunately Jefferson

and Burr each received the same number of votes, so it became the duty of

the House of Representatives to determine which should be President. When

the House elects a President, each state, no matter how many

representatives it may have, casts one vote. There were then sixteen

states [22] in the Union. The votes of nine, therefore, were necessary to

elect. But the Federalists held the votes of six, and as the

representatives of two more were equally divided, the Federalists thought

they could say who should be President, and tried hard to elect Burr.

Finally some of them yielded and allowed the Republicans to make Jefferson

President, thus leaving Burr to be Vice President.
PRESIDENT JEFFERSON.--The inauguration took place on March 4, 1801, at

Washington, to which city the government was removed from Philadelphia in

the summer of 1800. [23] Everywhere the day was celebrated with bell

ringing, cannonading, dinners, and parades. The people had triumphed; "the

Man of the People" was President. Monarchy, aristocracy, and Federalism,

it was said, had received a deathblow.

SUMMARY
1. The first Congress under the Constitution passed laws establishing the

executive departments and the United States courts, and other laws

necessary to put the new government in operation.
2. The debts incurred during the Revolution were assumed and funded, and

the permanent seat of government (after 1800) was located on the Potomac.

a mint was established for coining United States money.

between Great Britain and France, and it was with difficulty that our

government succeeded in remaining neutral.
5. Treaties were made with Great Britain and Spain, whereby these powers

withdrew from the posts they held in our country, the right of deposit at

New Orleans was secured, and peace was preserved.
6. A five years' Indian war in the Northwest Territory was ended by

Wayne's victory (1794) and the treaty of Greenville (1795).

but their insurrection was easily suppressed by a force of militia.

the growth of the Federalist and Republican parties, but party

organization was imperfect. In 1796 Adams (Federalist) was elected

President, and Jefferson (Republican) Vice President.

government, which made insulting demands upon our commissioners sent to

that country. A brief naval war in the French West Indies was ended by a

treaty made by a new French government in 1800.

against them in what are called the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of

1798-99, one of which claimed the right of a state to nullify an act of

Congress which it deemed unconstitutional.

successful; but as Jefferson and Burr had each the same number of votes,

the House of Representatives had to decide which should be President and

which Vice President. After a long contest Jefferson was given the higher

office, as the Republicans had wished.
[Illustration: A SILHOUETTE, A KIND OF PORTRAIT OFTEN MADE BEFORE 1840. In

the possession of the Concord Antiquarian Society.]

FOOTNOTES
[1] Washington appointed John Jay the first Chief Justice, and gave the

newly created secretaryships of State, Treasury, and War to Thomas

Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, and Henry Knox respectively. These men were

intended to be heads of departments; but Washington soon began to consult

them and the Attorney General on matters of state and thus made them also

a body of advisers known as "the Cabinet." All the Secretaries and the

Postmaster General and the Attorney General are now members of the

Cabinet.
[2] These ten amendments form a sort of "bill of rights," and were

intended to remove objections to the Constitution by those who feared that

the national government might encroach on the liberties of the people.

funded at $1 in government stock for $100 in the paper money; but the

other forms of debt were assumed by the government at their face value.

All told,--state debts, foreign debt, loan-office certificates, etc.,--

these obligations amounted to about $75,000,000. To pay so large a sum in

cash was impossible, so Congress ordered interest-bearing stock to be

given in exchange for evidence of debt.
[4] As first laid out, the District of Columbia was a square ten miles on

a side, and was partly in Virginia and partly in Maryland. But the piece

in Virginia many years later (1846) was given back to that state.
[5] After these two states were admitted each was given a star and a

stripe on the national flag. Until 1818 our flag thus had fifteen stars

and fifteen stripes, no further change being made as new states were

admitted. In 1818 two stripes were taken off, the number of stars was made

the same as the number of states, and since then each new state has been

represented by a new star.

British West Indies. He was sent to New York to be educated, and entered

King's College (now Columbia University). There he became an ardent

patriot, wrote pamphlets in defense of the first Congress, and addressed a

public meeting when but seventeen. He was captain of an artillery company

in 1776, one of Washington's aids in 1777-81, distinguished himself at

Yorktown, and (in 1782) went to Congress. He was a man of energy,

enthusiasm, and high ideals, was possessed of a singular genius for

finance, and believed in a vigorous national government. As Secretary of

the Treasury, Hamilton proposed not only the funding and assumption plans,

but the national bank and the mint.
[7] The coins were to be the eagle or ten-dollar piece, half eagle, and

quarter eagle of gold; the dollar, half, quarter, dime, and half dime of

silver; and the cent and half cent of copper. The mint was established at

once at Philadelphia, and the first copper coin was struck in 1793. But

coinage was a slow process, and many years passed before foreign coins

ceased to circulate. The accounts of Congress were always kept in dollars

and cents. But the states and the people used pounds, shillings, pence,

and Spanish dollars, and it was several years before the states, by law,

required their officers to levy taxes and keep accounts in dollars and

cents (Virginia in 1792, Rhode Island and Massachusetts in 1795, New York

and Vermont in 1797, New Jersey in 1799).
[8] A single letter in those days was one written on a single sheet of

paper, large or small, and the postage on it was 6 cents for any distance

under 30 miles, 8 cents from 30 to 60, 10 cents from 60 to 100, and so on

to 450 miles, above which the rate was 25 cents. In all our country there

were but 75 post offices, and the revenue derived from them was about

$100,000 a year.

189-204.
[10] Good feeling toward France led the Republicans to some funny

extremes. To address a person as Sir, Mr., Mrs., or Miss was unrepublican.

You should say, as in France, Citizen Jones, or Citizeness Smith. Tall

poles with a red liberty cap on top were erected in every town where there

were Republicans; civic feasts were held; and July 14 (the anniversary of

the day the Bastile of Paris fell in 1789) was duly celebrated.
[11] When Great Britain drove French ships from the sea, France threw open

the trade with the French West Indies to other ships. But Great Britain

had laid down a rule that no neutral could have in time of war a trade

with her enemy it did not have in time of peace. Our merchants fell under

the ban of Great Britain for this reason.
[12] These frigates were not built. They were really intended for use

against the Barbary powers (Morocco, Tunis, Algiers, Tripoli) that were

plundering our Mediterranean commerce. These nations of northern Africa

had long been accustomed to prey upon European ships and sell the crews

into slavery. To obtain protection against such treatment the nations of

southern Europe paid these pirates an annual tribute. Some of our ships

and sailors were captured, and as we had no navy with which to protect our

commerce, a treaty was made with Algiers (1795) which bound us to pay a

yearly tribute of "twelve thousand Algerine sequins in maritime stores."

We shall see what came of this a few years later.

Washington argued at length against sectional jealousy and party spirit,

and urged the promotion of institutions "for the general diffusion of

knowledge." He disapproved of large standing armies ("overgrown military

establishments"), and earnestly declared that our true policy is "to steer

clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world,"

especially European nations. Washington died at Mount Vernon, December 14,

1799.
[14] He called on all French citizens living in the United States to wear

on their hats the French tricolor (blue, white, and red) cockade, and of

course all the Republican friends of France did the same and made it their

party badge. He next published in the newspapers a long letter in which he

said, in substance, that unless the United States changed its policy

toward France it might expect trouble. This meant that unless a Republican

President (Jefferson) was elected, there might be war between the two

countries.
[15] John Adams was born in Quincy, Massachusetts, in 1735. He graduated

from Harvard College, studied law, and in 1770 was one of the lawyers who

defended the soldiers that were tried for murder in connection with the

famous "Boston Massacre." He was sent to the First and Second Continental

Congresses, and was a member of the committee appointed to frame the

Declaration of Independence, and of the committee to arrange treaties with

foreign powers. He was for a time associated with Franklin in the ministry

to France; in 1780 went as minister to Holland; and in 1783 was one of the

signers of the treaty of peace with Great Britain. In 1785 he was

appointed the first United States minister to Great Britain; and in 1789-

97 was Vice President.
[16] Adams received 71 votes, Jefferson 68, Pinckney 59, Burr 30, and nine

other men also received votes. Under the original Constitution the

electors did not vote separately for President and Vice President. Each

cast one ballot with two names on it; the man receiving the most votes (if

a majority of the number of electors) was elected President, and the man

receiving the next highest number was elected Vice President. Thus it

happened that while the Federalists elected the President, the Republicans

elected the Vice President.

Gerry was the Republican member.

of the People of the U. S._, Vol. II, pp. 376-387.

give Congress power to make such laws. The Virginia and Kentucky

Resolutions are printed in full in MacDonald's Select Documents, 1776-

1861, pp. 149-160.

of Captain John Barry. Another squadron under Captain Truxtun captured

sixty French privateers. The _Constellation_ took the French frigate

_Insurgente_ and beat the _Vengeance_, which escaped; the _Enterprise_

captured eight privateers and recaptured four American merchantmen; and

the _Boston_ captured the _Berceau_. During the war eighty-four armed

French vessels were taken by our navy.
[21] Thomas Jefferson was born on a Virginia plantation April 13, 1743,

attended William and Mary College, studied law, and in 1769 became a

member of the Virginia House of Burgesses. He rose into notice as a

defender of colonial rights, was sent to the Second Continental Congress,

and in 1776 wrote the Declaration of Independence. Between 1776 and 1789

he was a member of the Virginia legislature, governor of Virginia, member

of Congress (1783-1784), and minister to France (1784-1789). He was a

strict constructionist of the Constitution; he wrote the original draft of

the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798, had great faith in the ability of the

people to govern themselves, and dreaded the growth of great cities and

the extension of the powers of the Supreme Court. He and John Adams died

the same day, July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of

the Declaration of Independence.
[22] Tennessee, the sixteenth, was admitted in 1796.
[23] A story is current that on inauguration day Jefferson rode unattended

to the Capitol and tied his horse to the fence before entering the Senate

Chamber and taking the oath of office. The story was invented by an

English traveler and is pure fiction. The President walked to the Capitol

attended by militia and the crowd of supporters who came to witness the

end of the contested election, and was saluted by the guns of a company of

artillery as he entered the Senate Chamber and again as he came out.

CHAPTER XIX

PROSPERITY.--Twelve years had now elapsed since the meeting at New York of

the first Congress under the Constitution, and they had been years of

great prosperity.

with foreign countries and with its neighbors in its own way, and issued

its own paper money, which it made legal tender. Agriculture was in a

primitive stage, very little cotton was grown, mining was but little

practiced, manufacture had not passed the household stage, transportation

was slow and costly, and in all the states but three banks had been

chartered. [1]
With the establishment of a strong and vigorous government under the new

Constitution, and the passage of the much-needed laws we have mentioned,

these conditions began to pass away. Now that the people had a government