1. 1 Infrastructure and Society 2 Infrastructure Definition

mobile traffic. Most modem roadways have been constructed since 1900. Prior .to that, railroads were the primary mode of long-distance surface transportation during the 19th century and early 20th centu­ry. Philadelphia was the first city to initiate the construction of a large-scale municipal water supply system in 1798, followed by New York and Boston by the mid" 19th century [Grigg 88].

A chronological summary listing of infrastructure milestones in the present century is presented below [Infra 92, Horonjeff94].

1900-1909. Construction of sanitary and ship canal in Michigan, ini­tiation of the Panama Canal project; construction of320-km (200-mi) long Owens River aqueduct to bring water to Los Angeles; introduc­tion of gasoline and diesel power to roller and excavator; Wright Brothers' first airplane flight; opening of New York City's subway sys­tem; first concrete road paved in Wayne County, Michigan; 1906 earthquake that ravaged San Francisco.

1910-1919. Roosevelt Dam constructed near Phoenix, Arizona; con­struction of the first transcontinental highway (Lincoln Highway U.S. 30); introduction of motor grader; start of World War I in 1914 and conclusion in 1918; first U.S. federal-aid highway program legislation in 1916, with 50 percent federal participation; gasoline tax to pay for roads; postconstruction boom of roads, rural highway network grows to 4 million km (2.5 million mi) with 10 percent surfaced, including 16,800 km (10,500 mi) of asphalt, 3680 km (2300 mi) of concrete, and 2560 km (1600 mi) brick roads; first air-mail service between Washington, D.C. and New York in 1918.

1920-1929. Use of pneumatic rubber tires; 9 million autos and trucks damaging the unbound roads; introduction of earth scrapers, mobile cranes and tractors; assigning national road-numbering system (even numbers to east-west routes and odd numbers to north-south; main transcontinental routes numbered in multiples of 10); completion of the 9.8-km (6.1-mi) long Moffectrail tunnel near Denver and the Holland tunnel under the Hudson river between Manhattan and Jersey City; opening of intercontinental air travel; completion of Newark's international airport; 1928 Air Commerce Act; stock market crash in 1929 and start of the Great Depression.

1930-1939. President Roosevelt's National Recovery Act (NRA), which included a large program of public works construction and $400 million to the states for highway construction; completion of the Detroit-Windsor tunnel. New York City's George Washington Bridge, Hoover Dam, Bonneville Dam and hydroelectric power station in

Oregon, San Francisco's Trans Bay Bridge; Golden Gate suspension bridges; the Blue Ridge Parkway; establishment of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA); 1938 Civil Aeronautics Act defining federal government role in aviation; Germany's invasion of Poland and start of World War II.

Federal Aviation Act of 1958 establishing the Federal Aviation Agency.

Federal Water Pollution Act authorizing $18 billion for construction of waste-water treatment plants; authorization by Congress of the 1280-krp (800-mi) long Alaskan Oil pipeline and tanker terminal; construc­tion of JFK Causeway in Corpus Christi, a cable-stayed bridge in Alaska and the first cast-in-place segmented Pine Valley bridge near San Diego; opening of the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) System in San Francisco; Federal Aid Highway Act permitting limited use of federal funds for urban mass-transit projects; first trial of asphalt recycling for road construction; first Earth Day in 1970.

Congress expands the 4R program with the federal match of 90 per­cent; the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1982 raising the fuel tax on gasoline from 4 to 9 cents per gallon, with 1 cent ear­marked for mass transit; 72,000-km (45,000-mi) long interstate sys­tem near completion; Airport and Airway Improvement Act of 1982;

construction of the first roller-compacted Willow Creek Dam in Oregon; earthquakes creating major damage in Mexico and California.

1990-1992. Updating of Clean Air Act in 1990 with strict regulation on reduced vehicle emissions; construction decline due.to recession;

Airway Safety and Capacity Expansion Act of 1990; the 1991 Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEAt authorizing $155 billion over six years with emphasis on maintenance, service life analysis, and management systems; 1992 Chicago flood and Hurricane Andrew in South Florida; rebuilding infrastructure in Kuwait after the 1991 Gulf War, attracting U.S. and other international contrac­tors; other significant global changes, including the collapse of the Berlin Wall, opening of East European countries to the West. breakup of Soviet Union into independent republics and end of Cold War.

opening of the new Denver International Airport; construction of Olympic facilities in Atlanta; the 1994 ice-storm damage to electric-power stations and water-supply systems in the Midsouth region; enormous infrastructure damages during the 1994 Los Angeles earth­quake in the United States, and the 1995 Kobe earthquake in Japan.

Physical facilities and related services can be categorized in seven groups based on their primary functions and services, as shown in Table i

table 1.1 Categories of infrastructure assets.

1. TRANSPORTATION

2. WATER AND WASTE WATER

3. WASTE MANAGEMENT

4. ENERGY PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION

5. BUILDINGS

6. RECREATION FACILITIES

7. COMMUNICATION

The Big Picture 13

In the United States, most of the roads, airports, urban mass-tran­sit infrastructure facilities, water and wastewater facilities, and waste-management facilities are built and maintained by public agencies- Both public agencies and private enterprises are involved in energy production and distribution infrastructure, buildings, and recreational facilities. Railroad facilities and communications infra­structure are historically built and managed by the private sector.

The following subgroups of infrastructure assets include most of the publicly and privately owned and managed facilities used to pro­vide the essential services to support and sustain the civilian life in a nation.

• Ground transportation (roads, bridges, tunnels, railroads)

• Air transportation (airports, heliports, ground facilities, air-traffic control)

• Waterways and ports (shipping channels, main terminals, dry docks, ports)

• Intermodal facilities (rail-airport terminals, truck/rail/port termi­nals)

" Mass transit (subways, bus transit, light rail, monorails, plat­forms/stations)

• Water supply (pumping stations, treatment plants, main water lines, wells, mechanical/ electric equipment)

• Structures (dams, diversion, structures, tunnels, aqueducts)

• Agricultural water distribution (canals, rivers, weir, gates, dikes)

• Sewer (main sewer lines, septic tanks, treatment plants, storm-water drains)

1.4.1.3 Waste management (landfills, treatment plants, recycling facilities)

• Solid waste

• Hazardous waste

• Nuclear waste

• Electric power production (hydro-electric power stations; gas-, oil-, and coal-fueled power generation)

• Electric power distribution (high-voltage power transmission lines, substations, distribution systems, energy-control center, service and maintenance facilities)

• Gas pipeline (gas production, pipeline, computer stations and con­trol centers, storage tanks, service and maintenance facilities)

• Petroleum/oil production (pumping stations, oil/gas separation plants, roads)

• Petroleum/oil distribution (marine and ground tanker terminals, pipelines, pumping stations, maintenance facilities, storage tanks)

• Nuclear power stations (nuclear reactors, power-generation stations, .nuclear waste disposal facilities, emergency equipment and facilities)

1.4.1.5 Buildings

• Tall buildings—residential/commercial (structures, utilities, swim­ming pools, security, ground access, parking)

" Public buildings (schools, hospitals, government offices, police sta­tions, fire stations, postal offices, parking structures)

• Multipurpose complexes (coliseums, amphitheaters, convention centers, religious congregation buildings)

• Sports complexes (indoor, stadiums, golf courses)

• Movie theaters (indoor, drive-in)

• Housing facilities (public, private)

• Manufacturing/warehouse facilities

• Hotels/commercial properties (hotels, inns, time-sharing units, clubs, malls)

1.4.1.6 Recreational tactlrttes

• Parks and playgrounds (roads, parking areas, recreational facili­ties, office buildings, rest rooms, ornamental fountains, swimming pools, picnic areaa)

• Lake and water sports (roads, parking areas, picnic areas, marinas)

• Theme parks/casinos (access roads, buildings, restaurants, security facilities, structures)

1.4.1.7 Communication

• Telecommunications network (telephone-exchange stations, cable distribution, power supplies, switching and data-processing cen­ters, buildings, transmission towers, and repeat stations)

• Television/cable network (production stations, transmission facili­ties, cable distribution, power supply, buildings)

• Wireless/satellite network (satellites, ground-control centers, com­munication systems, receivers, buildings, services and maintenance facilities)

• Information highway network (computer networks, cable distribution, data-processing hardware/ software, on-line and off-line systems, information sources, buildings, backup and recording mediums)

The road network in the United States exceeds 6 million km (3.9 million mi), as shown in Figure 1.4 by functional classification [Abstract 94]. While the interstate highway system is about 1 percent of the total road network, it carries over 20 percent of the heavy-truck traffic [Choate 81]. As a part of the ISTEA (Intermodal and Surface Transportation Efficiency Act) legislation. Congress has designated about 256,000 km (160,000 mi) of road as the National Highway System (NHS) in 1995, Although the NHS will comprise only 4 percent of the nation's roads, it carries 40 percent of auto travel and 75 percent of truck traffic, and con­nects 95 percent of the businesses and 90 percent of the households in the United States [FHWA 96]. The national bridge inventory contains 577,000 bridges of which 70 percent were constructed prior to 1935. Many of these bridges are more than 50 years old, and 40 percent are,

by reasons of their condition or appraisal, eligible candidates for reha­bilitation or replacement [Golabi 92].

Figure 1.5 shows the distribution of national transit ways by mode [Abstract 94]. A World Bank study [Faiz 87] provides an overview on the status of main roads in 85 developing countries that have received $9.4 billion in road-assistance programs from the World Bank during the years 1974 to 1985. The aggregate length of the main road systems in these countries is about 1.8 million km, of which slightly more than 1 million km are paved. The main roads carry about 70 to 80 percent of the interurban traffic.

Historically, airports have been reliable and stable and have kept pace with the technological developments in air-traffic-control systems and aircraft fleet. Figure 1.6 shows the advances in aircraft fleet as a result of travel demand [Horonj'en'94]. Average passenger capacity per aircraft was 106 seats in 1969, which grew to 162 seats by 1978 and 181 seats by 1989. New wide-bodied aircraft have a capacity of 300-500 passengers. In 1978, about 250 million passengers in the United States traveled by air, and by 1989 this figure had already reached 445 mil­lion [Hamiel 92]. The worldwide airline fleet in 1975-1978 was some­where in the vicinity of 3,500 to 4,000 aircrafts; by 1989 the fleet grew to 7,441 aircrafts as estimated by Boeing andAirmark.

The railroad network in the United States has been used largely for bulk freight over long distance since the 1960s. Light-rail trains have become effective in some large urban areas. In Europe, Japan, and

[Abstract 94].

1.4.3 Urban infrastructure

There is a worldwide trend to increased urbanization. About 40 percent of the world population now lives in cities. In the United States, approximately 90 percent of the population inhabits 10 percent of the land [Bragdon 951. Urban infrastructure and related public services are therefore crucial to our society. For illustration, the following summary of New York City's infrastructure assets is presented [Wagner 84]:

New York City's capital needs are enormous. The extent and variety of New York^s infrastructure are extraordinary:

• Forty-seven waterway bridges and 2,057 highway bridges and ele­vated structures.

• A water-supply system that delivers 1.45 billion gallons of water a day from a reservoir system of 1,956 sq. mi. It delivers water through two tunnels (a third is under construction), 32 billion lin­ear feet of trunk and distribution mains, and 20,000 trunk valves.

• 6,100 mi of sewers, 12 operating water-pollution-control plants and 450 combined sewer-overflow regulators.

• 6,200 mi of paved streets that cover approximately 30 percent of the city's land.

• 6,700 subway cars that ride on 232 mi of track (137 mi under­ground, 72 mi elevated, and 23 mi open bed) and 4,560 buses,

• An estimated 3,500 acres of landfill, and nine marine transfer sta­tions.

• Over 25,000 acres of parkland.

1.5 Life-cycle Analysis in Planning and Design

The infrastructure construction boom of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s m the United States, Europe, and other parts of the world resulted in numerous projects and advances in planning and design practices. Availability and use of computers and telecommunication facilities have helped in these accomplishments. Operational management of the facilities and services has also advanced. However, until recently, much of the infrastructure development did not consider maintenance, future rehabilitation/renovation, and replacement activities in overall planning and costing. Scheduled maintenance has been generally based on experience or on "crisis" urgency. Consequently, the quality of

The Big Picture 19

Initial Construction Cost

Life Cycle or