2012 Assessment Period Manta alfredi

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THREAT ABATEMENT

Give an overview of recovery and threat abatement/mitigation actions that are underway and/or proposed.

Potential threat abatement:

Heinrichs et al. (2011) suggest the following actions could be taken in order to provide threat abatement for Manta spp. including M. alfredi:

Trade Moratoriums – Fisheries are notoriously difficult to regulate and enforce regulations on (Akiba, 1997; Uozumi, 2003). Research suggests that the most effective, single measure to reduce pressure on mobulids would be an international moratorium on the import and sale of gill rakers (Heinrichs et al., 2011). The majority of trade takes place within the Guangzhou region of China and has an estimated economic value of USD$11 Million per annum (Hilton, 2011). It is also suggested that other governments considering legislation to protect sharks, including shark fin trade bans, should include manta and mobula rays in these bills.

Consumer Education – Consumer education campaigns could support the call for a moratorium. Campaigns could inform consumers “of the unproven nature of gill raker tonic claims, the extreme vulnerability of these animals, and the long-term sustainable value of keeping them alive” (Heinrichs et al., 2011).

International Protections – It is suggested that all range state countries of Mobulids (M. alfredi included), should propose their listing under either appendices of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (Heinrichs et al., 2011). A CITES listing would be a highly effective conservation measure. This was considered in 2010 by the US CITES delegation, but wasn’t enacted due to a lack of data on fisheries and trade.

Additionally, it is suggested that all Regional Fishery Management Organizations (RFMO’s) enact “no retention” policies for all mobulids taken as bycatch (Heinrichs et al., 2011). Currently no RFMOs utilise policies that protect manta and mobula rays.

Range State Protections – Range state regulations prohibiting the killing and trade of mobulids must be pursued (Heinrichs et al., 2011). Protection initiatives should be initially focuses on the largest fisheries where mobulids occur, including Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India and Peru, as well as Mozambique and other African countries. Protection of critical habitats is suggested, along with regulations based on seasonal aggregations.

Eco-Tourism and Other Economic Alternatives – Vital to conservation initiatives is poverty alleviation and economic alternatives (Adams et al., 2004). There is a great potential for long-term sustainable income, for areas where mobulids are hunted, in managed and responsible eco-tourism (Brightsmith et al., 2008). These initiatives can provide local community links to species conservation and protection.

Enforcement – It is important that enforcement strategies for conservation activities are enacted and that they are developed with local stakeholders in order to mitigate against illegal poaching activities (Hilborn et al., 2006).

Existing Conservation Efforts:

Some nations and nation states (table 1.) have passed laws that prohibit the harvest of mobulids (including M. alfredi). At the last Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), M. birostris was added to the treaty, requiring all party states where the species occurs to provide immediate protection. This addition to the treaty points out the burgeoning international recognition of the threats to mobulid species and is the first international agreement to protect any manta ray species (CMS, 2012; Heinrichs et al., 2011).

United States: In 2009, the Governor of Hawaii signed House Bill 366 creating Act 092(09) establishing criminal penalties and administrative fines for knowingly killing or capturing manta rays within State waters (Heinrichs et al., 2011; State of Hawaii, 2009).
Pacific Island States: The sale, trade and distribution of ray parts are prohibited by legislation enacted in Guam in 2011 (Heinrichs et al., 2011; The Federated States of Micronesia, 2011). This legislation applies to the Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands an area of over 4.5 million square kilometres.

Republic of Maldives: There has been an export ban on all ray species and their parts since 1995 in the Republic of Maldives (International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2012b). Additionally the Maldivian Government created two Marine Protected Areas (MPA) for the specific protection of critical Manta Ray habitat of both species in 2009.

Philippines: Due to focused fishing in the Philippines, Manta Rays have become a rare species (Marshall et al., 2011a). Due to this the Philippines Government banned the fishing of Manta Rays in 2003.

Yap: A ~13,000 square kilometre MPA was created in Yap in 2008, specifically for the protection of Manta Rays (Heinrichs et al., 2011; International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2012b).

Western Australia: Only M. birostris is explicitly protected from any fishing and disturbance or harassment and then, only within marine parks (The Government of Western Australia, 1994). As the species classifications are out of date, the Fish Resources Management Act 1994 does not recognise the two distinct manta ray species, as such M. alfredi are not protected (The Government of Western Australia, 1995).

Surveys and Monitoring

DISTINCTIVENESS

Give details of the distinctiveness of the species.
Is this species taxonomically distinct? Taxonomic distinctiveness is a measure of how unique a species is relative to other species.
How distinct is this species in its appearance from other species? How likely is it to be misidentified?

Until recently, the genus Manta was described as monspecific. The genus has now been re-described with two distinct species the Reef Manta Ray (M. alfredi) and the Giant Manta Ray (M. birostris) (Marshall et al. 2009), this was further confirmed by genetic evidence (Kashiwagi et al., in press). Both species occur worldwide, with some regional populations being sympatric and other allopatric (Kashiwagi et al., 2011).
Due to the taxonomic confusion prior to 2009, historical data can lead to misidentification of the species referred to where adequate descriptions and photographs are absent (Marshall et al., 2009). Given this, care should be taken when using historical data to ensure that records are not referring to M. birostris. Two colour morphs occur in both species; melanistic (black) and leucistic (white) (Marshall et al., 2009). This can contribute to further difficulty in differentiating between the species where close examination is not possible and may continue to be a source of error in future studies and surveys (Marshall et al., 2009).
Additionally, manta rays can often be confused with Mobula species (commonly called devil rays) due to close morphological resemblance and similar life history aspects, such as planktonic feeding, reproduction rate and mode, size and circumglobal habitation (White et al., 2006). Figure 6 shows the similarities between the distinct species. Care must be taken to ensure that reports and surveys are of the correct genus and professional advice should be sought when identifying individuals (Marshall et al., 2011a).

DETECTABILITY

Give details of the detectability of the species.
Provide information on how easy the species is to detect and the ease in which it has/can be surveyed.

If relevant, provide information on when and how surveys should be conducted, for example:
- Recommended methods
- Season, time of day, weather conditions
- Length, intensity and pattern of search effort
- Limitations and whether or not the method is accepted by experts
- Survey-effort guide
- Methods for detecting the species.

Manta rays have a great eco-tourism potential, due to their charismatic nature. This is especially relevant in coastal and developing countries where their presence can be used to generate substantial economic gains (Anderson et al., 2010). As the species tend to aggregate with predictability, they can be easy to find and approach by tourists and tourism operators. The popularity of these species has contributed to an increase in field research at aggregation sites. An important feature of the species, an individual pigmentation pattern on their ventral surface, allows for photographic identification of individuals. This method of identification has provided high quality information regarding the species ecology and biology (Kashiwagi et al., 2010, 2011; Marshall & Bennett, 2010a, b; Couturier et al., 2011; Deakos et al., 2011; Marshall et al., 2011c).
Methods of detection (Couturier et al., 2012):

Photographic-Identification and citizen science:

Continuous effort by the diving community and research project currently exist to survey and monitor the populations of manta ray around Australia. Professional and recreational divers are able to submit their photos and sighting records of manta rays to the current manta ray research project and contribute to the data collection. This method is recognised by the scientific community and has been used by other manta research programs around the world and provided key information on manta ray biology and ecology (Kashiwagi et al., 2010, 2011; Marshall & Bennett, 2010a, b; Couturier et al., 2011; Deakos et al., 2011; Marshall et al., 2011c). Photographic evidence is analysed after being gathered by divers, including professionals, amateurs and tourists.

The online global manta ray data base ECOCEAN MantaMatcher allows for sighting reports of manta rays with photographic evidence around the world (ECOCEAN Manta Matcher, 2012).
Limitations: Most photo-ID databases are limited to a particular aggregation area, and thus only have a limited capacity to answer questions associated with the large-scale movements of manta rays (Couturier et al., 2012).
Acoustic telemetry (Couturier et al., 2012):

This technique allows us to understand the habitat use of a particular site by manta rays. In eastern Australia arrays of receivers are placed all along the coast by several research projects (e.g. AATAMS), allowing the monitoring of tagged manta ray movements along the coast.

Limitation: only a small number of individuals (i.e. number of individual equipped with acoustic tags) can be monitored. The tag attachments generally only last up to 1 year, thus, regular tagging campaigns must be undertaken to maintain the flow of data on the population.

This method is widely used by experts within the field of animal tracking with numerous publications are available (e.g. Heupel et al. 2006). Two studies using this technique on M. alfredi are available in the scientific literature (Dewar et al., 2008; van Dukiken 2010).

Satellite telemetry (Couturier et al., 2012):

Satellite tags are attached to manta rays for about 3 months before they automatically detach. Data collected by these tags includes: swimming depth, light intensity, surrounding temperature and geo-location.

This technique provides information on the depth at which the species is likely to occur during the day and at night. What temperature the animal has been exposed to and what route the individual has been swimming to go from one point to another. Several studies of M. alfredi movement ecology using this technique are underway (XXXX XXXX unpubl. data).

Limitations: Only a limited number of tags can be deployed (limited by cost of the tag and number of individual available during tagging campaign). The tag is only deployed for a short period of time on the animal.

SURVEYS

Provide information on survey effort to date, and any ongoing/proposed monitoring programs.

In eastern Australia: Surveys of the manta ray population in this area involved both researchers and the diving-community since 2007 (Couturier et al. 2011; XXXX XXXX unpub.data). This effort will continue in the future and increase with the rise of public awareness on manta ray research through documentaries, public talks and researcher- directly engaging with the community.

In Western Australia: surveys of the manta population at this location have existed since 2004. Both researchers and the public are involved in the data collection.

Global Surveys: Table 2 lists studies that have occurred both nationally and internationally, from Kashiwagi et al. 2011.

While M. alfredi has a circumglobal distribution, recorded surveys of the species are not common (Couturier et al., 2011). Table 2 lists studies that have occurred both nationally and internationally. Note that many of these study started prior to the species split in 2009 (Marshall and Bennett, 2009) and it is now recognised that they are monitoring either M. alfredi, M. birostris or in some locations, both species.

Indigenous Values

INDIGENOUS CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE

Is the species known to have cultural significance for Indigenous groups within Australia? If so, to which groups? Provide information on the nature of this significance if publicly available.

There is little information available about the cultural significance of manta rays to Indigenous Australians. However it is known that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders do harvest the species for consumption and use biological indicators to select which individuals are fit for consumption (reefED, 2012).

FURTHER INFORMATION

Identify relevant studies or management documentation that might relate to the species (e.g. research projects, national park management plans, recovery plans, conservation plans, threat abatement plans, etc.).

Research projects within Australian waters:

Mike Bennett et al – ARC Linkage project: LP1110712: “An integrated examination of the drivers of movements of large filter-feeding organisms of high ecotourism value: a case study” – The University of Queensland

Kathy Townsend et al – Earthwatch research project; “Project Manta” – The University of Queensland

Lydie Couturier_ PhD thesis due by end 2012: “Population ecology and biology of Manta alfredi in eastern Australia” – The University of Queensland

Fabrice Jaine – PhD Project due by end 2012: “Movements of planktivorous marine megafauna and ocean dynamics: A case study of east Australian manta rays” – The University of Queensland

Nathalie Verlinden – Honours project – “Seasonal variation of zooplankton nutritional quality in manta ray (Manta alfredi) aggregation areas” – The University of Queensland

Frazer McGregor – PhD Thesis: “Ecology and movements of manta rays of Western Australia” - Murdoch University

Richard Fitzpatrick – research project – “Caitlin Seaview Survey - The Mega-Fauna Survey team” – The University of Queensland

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APPENDIX

Please place here any figures, tables or maps that you have referred to within your nomination. Alternatively, you can provide them as an attachment.