party. [7] THE CAMPAIGN OF 1856.--At Philadelphia, in June, 1856, a Republican

founded the new Republican party. [7]
THE CAMPAIGN OF 1856.--At Philadelphia, in June, 1856, a Republican

national convention nominated John C. Fremont for President. The Democrats

nominated James Buchanan. A remnant of the Whigs, now nicknamed "Silver

Grays," indorsed Fillmore, who had been nominated by the American, or

"Know-nothing," party. [8] The Free-soilers joined the Republicans.

Buchanan was elected. [9]

the Supreme Court made public a decision which threw the country into

intense excitement. A slave named Dred Scott had been taken by his owner

from Missouri to the free state of Illinois and then to Minnesota, made

free soil by the Compromise of 1820. When brought back to Missouri, Dred

Scott sued for freedom. Long residence on free soil, he claimed, had made

him free. The case finally reached the Supreme Court of the United States,

which decided against him. [10] But in delivering the decision, Chief-

Justice Taney announced: (1) that Congress could not shut slavery out of

the territories, and (2) that the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was

unconstitutional and void.
THE TERRITORIES OPEN TO SLAVERY.--This decision confirmed all that the

South had gained by the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Compromise of 1850,

and also opened to slavery Washington and Oregon, which were then free

territories.

much mistaken. Not a year went by but some incident occurred which added

to the excitement.
[Illustration: LINCOLN'S LAW OFFICE IN SPRINGFIELD.]
LINCOLN-DOUGLAS DEBATE.--In 1858 the people of Illinois were to elect a

legislature which would choose a senator to succeed Stephen A. Douglas.

The Democrats declared for Douglas. The Republicans nominated Abraham

Lincoln, [11] and as the canvass proceeded the two candidates traversed

the state, holding a series of debates. The questions discussed were

popular sovereignty, the Dred Scott decision, and the extension of slavery

into the territories, and the debates attracted the attention of the whole

country. Lincoln was defeated; but his speeches gave him a national

reputation. [12]
JOHN BROWN AT HARPERS FERRY.--In 1859 John Brown, a lifelong enemy of

slavery, went to Harpers Ferry, Virginia, with a little band of followers,

to stir up an insurrection and free the slaves. He was captured, tried for

murder and treason, and hanged. The attempt was a wild one; but it caused

intense excitement in both the North and the South, and added to the

bitter feeling which had long existed between the two sections. [13]

the slavery issues that when they met in convention at Charleston, South

Carolina, in 1860, the party was rent in twain, and no candidates were

chosen. Later in the year the Northern wing nominated Stephen A. Douglas

for President. The Southern delegates, at a convention of their own,

selected John C. Breckinridge.

of Tennessee. This was the Constitutional Union party. The Republicans

[14] named Abraham Lincoln and carried the election. [15]

SUMMARY
1. The Compromise of 1850 was supposed to settle the slavery issues, and

the two great parties pledged themselves to support it.
2. But the issues were not settled, and in 1854 the organization of Kansas

and Nebraska reopened the struggle.

Whig party and the Democratic party, and by the union of those who left

them, with the Free-soilers, the Republican party was made, 1854-56.
4. In 1857 the Supreme Court declared the Missouri Compromise

unconstitutional, and opened all territories to slavery.

and Douglas.

elected President by the Republican party.

Contemporary drawing.]

FOOTNOTES
[1] Franklin Pierce was born in New Hampshire in 1804, and died in 1869.

He began his political career in the state legislature, went to Congress

in 1833, and to the United States Senate in 1837. In the war with Mexico,

Pierce rose from the ranks to a brigadier generalship. He was a bitter

opponent of anti-slavery measures; but when the Civil War opened he became

a Union man.

vote was, for Pierce, 1,601,474; for Scott, 1,386,580; for Hale, 155,667.

made attorney-general of Illinois in 1834, secretary of state and judge of

the supreme court of Illinois in 1840, a member of Congress in 1843, and

of the United States Senate in 1847. He was a small man, but one of such

mental power that he was called "the Little Giant." He was a candidate for

the presidential nomination in the Democratic conventions of 1852 and

1856, and in 1860 was nominated by the Northern wing of that party. He was

a Union man.

_History of the U. S._, Vol. I, pp. 461-470.

Atchison, Leavenworth, Lecompton, and Kickapoo, in the northeastern part

of Kansas. Free-state men from the North founded Lawrence, Topeka,

Manhattan, Osawatomie, in the east-central part of the territory.

destroyed, and the free-state town of Lawrence was sacked by the

proslavery men. In 1857 the proslavery party made a slave-state

constitution at Lecompton and applied for admission, and the Senate (1858)

voted to admit Kansas under it; but the House refused. In 1859 the Free-

soilers made a second (the Wyandotte) constitution, under which Kansas was

admitted into the Union (1861).
[7] The breaking up of old parties over the slavery issues naturally

brought up the question of forming a new party, and at a meeting at Ripon

in Wisconsin in 1854, it was proposed to call the new party Republican.

After the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill, a thousand citizens of

Michigan signed a call for a state convention, at which a Republican state

party was formed and a ticket nominated on which were Whigs, Free-soilers,

and Anti-Nebraska Democrats. Similar "fusion tickets," as they were

called, were adopted in eight other states. The success of the new party

in the elections of 1854, and its still greater success in 1855, led to a

call for a convention at Pittsburg on Washington's Birthday, 1856. There

and then the national Republican party was founded.
[8] The American party was the outcome of a long-prevalent feeling against

the election of foreign-born citizens to office. At many times and at many

places this feeling had produced political organizations. But it was not

till 1852 that a secret, oath-bound organization, with signs, grips, and

passwords, was formed and spread its membership rapidly through most of

the states. As its members would not tell its principles and methods, and

professed entire ignorance of them when questioned, the American party was

called in derision "the Know-nothings." Its success, however, was great,

and in 1855 Know-nothing governors and legislatures were elected in eight

states, and heavy votes polled in six more.

Fillmore, 8. The popular vote was, for Buchanan, 1,838,169; for Frémont,

1,341,264; for Fillmore, 874,534. James Buchanan was born in Pennsylvania

in 1791, was educated at school and college, studied law, served in the

state legislature, was five times elected to the House of Representatives,

and three times to the Senate. In the Senate he was a warm supporter of

Jackson, and favored the annexation of Texas under Tyler. He was Secretary

of State under Polk, and had been minister to Great Britain.

brought as slaves into the United States could be a citizen; Scott

therefore was not a citizen, and hence could not sue in any United States

court.
[11] Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky, February 12, 1809, and while

still a child was taken by his parents to Indiana. The first winter was

spent in a half-faced camp, and for several years the log cabin that

replaced it had neither door nor wood floor. Twelve months' "schooling"

was all he ever had; but he was fond of books and borrowed Aesop's

_Fables_, _Robinson Crusoe_, and Weems's _Life of Washington_, the book in

which first appeared the fabulous story of the hatchet and the cherry

tree. At nineteen Lincoln went as a flatboatman to New Orleans. In 1830

his father moved to Illinois, where Lincoln helped build the cabin and

split the rails to fence in the land, and then went on another flatboat

voyage to New Orleans. He became a clerk in a store in 1831, served as a

volunteer in the Black Hawk War, tried business and failed, became

postmaster of New Salem, which soon ceased to have a post office,

supported himself as plowman, farm hand, and wood cutter, and tried

surveying; but made so many friends that in 1834 he was sent to the

legislature, and reelected in 1836, 1838, and 1840. He now began the

practice of law, settled in Springfield, was elected to Congress in 1846,

and served there one term.
[12] For a description of the Lincoln-Douglas debate of 1858, read

Rhodes's _History of the U. S._, Vol. II, pp. 314-338.

Ossawatomie_, or Stedman's _How Old Brown took Harper's Ferry_. Read,

also, Rhodes's _History of the U. S._, Vol. II, pp. 383-398.
[14] The platform of the Republicans adopted in 1860 (at Chicago) sets

forth: (1) that the party repudiates the principles of the Dred Scott

decision, (2) that Kansas must be admitted as a free state, (3) that the

territories must be free soil, and (4) that slavery in existing states

should not be interfered with.
[15] The electoral vote was, for Lincoln, 180; for Douglas, 12; for

Breckinridge, 72; for Bell, 39. The popular vote was, for Lincoln,

1,866,452; for Douglas, 1,376,957; for Breckinridge, 849,781; for Bell,

588,879. Lincoln received no votes at all in ten Southern states. The

popular votes were so distributed that if those for Douglas, Breckinridge,

and Bell had all been cast for one of the candidates, Lincoln would still

have been elected President (by 173 electoral votes to 130).

CHAPTER XXVII

POPULATION.--In the twenty years which had elapsed since 1840 the

population of our country had risen to over 31,000,000. In New York alone

there were, in 1860, about as many people as lived in the whole United

States in 1789.
Not a little of this increase of population was due to the stream of

immigrants which had been pouring into the country. From a few thousand in

1820, the number who came each year rose gradually to about 100,000 in the

year 1842, and then went down again. But famine in Ireland and hard times

in Germany started another great wave of immigration, which rose higher

and higher till (1854) more than 400,000 people arrived in one year. Then

once more the wave subsided, and in 1861 less than 90,000 came.
[Illustration: SETTLED AREA IN 1860.]
NEW STATES AND TERRITORIES.--Though population was still moving westward,

few of our countrymen, before the gold craze of 1849, had crossed the

Missouri. Those who did, went generally to Oregon, which was organized as

a territory in 1848 and admitted into the Union as a state in 1859. By

that time California (1850) and Minnesota (1858) had also been admitted,

so that the Union in 1860 consisted of thirty-three states and five

territories. Eighteen states were free, and fifteen slave-holding. The

five territories were New Mexico, Utah, Washington (1853), Kansas, and

Nebraska (small map, p. 394).
CITY LIFE.--About one sixth of the population in 1860 lived in cities, of

which there were about 140 of 8000 or more people each. Most of them were

ugly, dirty, badly built, and poorly governed. The older ones, however,

were much improved. The street pump had given way to water works; gas and

plumbing were in general use; many cities had uniformed police; [1] but

the work of fighting fires was done by volunteer fire departments. Street

cars (drawn by horses) now ran in all the chief cities, omnibuses were in

general use, and in New York city the great Central Park, the first of its

kind in the country, had been laid out. Illustrated magazines, and weekly

papers, Sunday newspapers, and trade journals had been established, and in

some cities graded schools had been introduced. [2]
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.--In the country the district school for boys and

girls was gradually being improved. The larger cities of the North now had

high schools as well as common schools, and in a few instances separate

high schools for girls. Between 1840 and 1860 eighty-two sectarian and

twenty non-sectarian colleges were founded, and the Naval Academy at

Annapolis was opened. Not even the largest college in 1860 had 800

students, and in but one (University of Iowa, 1856) were women admitted to

all departments.

cities, but in most of the large towns, and in such libraries were

collections of poetry, essays, novels, and histories written by American

authors. Longfellow, Holmes, Lowell, Poe, Bryant, and Whittier among

poets; Hawthorne, Irving, Cooper, Simms, and Poe among writers of fiction;

Emerson and Lowell among essayists, were read and admired abroad as well

as at home. Prescott, who had lately (1859) died, had left behind him

histories of Spain in the Old World and in the New; Parkman was just

beginning his story of the French in America; Motley had published his

_Rise of the Dutch Republic_, and part of his _History of the United

Netherlands_; Hildreth had completed one _History of the United States_,

and Bancroft was still at work on another.

The novels of Kennedy, and the poetry of Drake, Halleck, and Willis are

not yet forgotten.
OCCUPATIONS.--In the Eastern states the people were engaged chiefly in

fishing, commerce, and manufacturing; in the Middle states in farming,

commerce, manufacturing, and mining. To the great coal and iron mines of

Pennsylvania were (1859) added the oil fields. That petroleum existed in

that state had long been known; but it was not till Drake drilled a well

near Titusville (in northwestern Pennsylvania) and struck oil that enough

was obtained to make it marketable. Down the Ohio there was a great trade

in bituminous coal, and the union of the coal, iron, and oil trades was

already making Pittsburg a great city. In the South little change had

taken place. Cotton, tobacco, sugar, and the products of the pine forests

were still the chief sources of wealth; mills and factories hardly

existed. The West had not only its immense farms, but also the iron mines

of upper Michigan, the lead mines of the upper Mississippi and in

Missouri, the copper mines of the Lake Superior country, and the lumber

industry of Michigan and Wisconsin. Through the lakes passed a great

commerce. California was the great gold-mining state; but gold and silver

had just been discovered near Pikes Peak, and in what is now Nevada.
THE MORMONS.--Utah territory in 1860 contained forty thousand white

people, nearly all Mormons. These people, as we have seen, when driven

from Missouri, built the city called Nauvoo in Illinois. Their leaders now

introduced the practice of polygamy, and in various ways opposed the state

authorities. In 1844 they came to blows with the state; the leaders were

arrested, and while in jail Joseph Smith and his brother were murdered by

a mob. Brigham Young then became head of the church, and in the winter of

1846 the Mormons, driven from Nauvoo, crossed the Mississippi and began a

long march westward over the plains to Great Salt Lake, then in Mexico.

There they settled down, and when the war with Mexico ended, they were

again in the United States. When Utah was made a territory in 1850,

Brigham Young was appointed its first governor. [3]

an some older state; but now California and Oregon were separated from the

other states by wide stretches of wilderness. The Rocky Mountain highland

and the Great Plains, however, were not entirely uninhabited. Over them

wandered bands of Indians mounted on fleet ponies; white hunters and

trappers, some trapping for themselves, some for the great fur companies;

and immense herds of buffalo, [4] and in the south herds of wild horses.

The streams still abounded with beaver. Game was everywhere, deer, elk,

antelope, bears, wild turkeys, prairie chickens, and on the streams wild

ducks and geese. Here and there were villages of savage and merciless

Indians, and the forts or trading posts of the trappers. Every year bands

of emigrants crossed the plains and the mountains, bound to Utah,

California, or Oregon.
PROPOSED RAILROAD TO THE PACIFIC.--In 1842 John C. Fremont, with Kit

Carson as guide, began a series of explorations which finally extended

from the Columbia to the Colorado, and from the Missouri to California and

Oregon (map, p. 314). [5] Men then began to urge seriously the plan of a

railroad across the continent to some point on the Pacific. In 1845 Asa

Whitney [6] applied to Congress for a grant of a strip of land from some

point on Lake Michigan to Puget Sound, and came again with like appeals in

1846 and 1848. By that time the Mexican cession had been acquired, and

this with the discovery of gold in California gave the idea such

importance that (in 1853) money was finally voted by Congress for the

survey of several routes. Jefferson Davis, as Secretary of War, ordered

five routes to be surveyed and (in 1855) recommended the most southerly;

and the Senate passed a bill to charter three roads. [7] Jealousy among

the states prevented the passage of the bill by the House. In 1860 the

platforms of the Democratic and Republican parties declared for such a

railroad.

was more remarkable than in earlier periods. The first iron-front building

was erected, the first steam fire engine used, wire rope manufactured, a

grain drill invented, Hoe's printing press with revolving type cylinders

introduced, and six inventions or discoveries of universal benefit to

mankind were given to the world. They were the electric telegraph, the

sewing machine, the improved harvester, vulcanized rubber, the photograph,

and anaesthesia.

by Alfred Vail, to make the electric telegraph a success, [8] and in 1844,

with the aid of a small appropriation by Congress, Morse built a telegraph

line from Baltimore to Washington. [9] Further aid was asked from Congress

and refused. [10] The Magnetic Telegraph Company was then started. New

York and Baltimore were connected in 1846, and in ten years some forty

companies were in operation in the most populous states.
[Illustration: HOWE'S FIRST SEWING MACHINE.]
THE SEWING MACHINE; THE HARVESTER.--A man named Hunt invented the

lockstitch sewing machine in 1834; but it was not successful, and some

time elapsed before his idea was taken up by Elias Howe, who after several

years of experiment (1846) made a practical machine. People were slow to

use it, but by 1850 he had so aroused the interest of inventors that seven

rivals were in the field, and to their joint labors we owe one of the most

useful inventions of the century. From the household the sewing machine

passed into use in factories (1862), and to-day gives employment to

hundreds of thousands of people.
[Illustration: EARLY HARVESTER. From an old print.]
What the sewing machine is to the home and the factory, that is the reaper

to the farm. After many years of experiment Cyrus McCormick invented a

practical reaper and (1840) sought to put it on the market, but several

more years passed before success was assured. To-day, greatly improved and

perfected, it is in use the world over, and has made possible the great

grain fields, not only of our own middle West and Northwest, but of

Argentina, Australia, and Russia.
VULCANIZED RUBBER; PHOTOGRAPHY; ANAESTHESIA.--The early attempts to use

India rubber for shoes, coats, caps, and wagon covers failed because in

warm weather the rubber softened and emitted an offensive smell. To

overcome this Goodyear labored year after year to discover a method of

hardening or, as it is called, vulcanizing rubber. Even when the discovery

was made and patented, several years passed before he was sure of the

process. In 1844 he succeeded and gave to the world a most useful

invention.

exposing to sunlight a copper plate treated with certain chemicals. The

exposure for each picture was some twenty minutes. An American, Dr. John

W. Draper, so improved the method that pictures were taken of persons in a

much shorter time, and photography was fairly started.
Greater yet was the discovery that by breathing sulphuric ether a person

can become insensible to pain and then recover consciousness. The glory of

the discovery has been claimed for Dr. Morton and Dr. Jackson, who used it

in 1846. Laughing gas (nitrous oxide) was used as an ansesthetic before

this time by Dr. Wells of Hartford.
TRANSPORTATION IMPROVED.--In the country east of the Mississippi some

thirty thousand miles of railroad had been built, and direct communication