Policy Formulation using "Best Available Science": Is there Room for Citizen Science?

In the world of policy making, the phrases “science based” and “best available science” are frequently used. Traditionally, this has been the domain of peer-reviewed, published findings, thus ensuring credibility and quality. For the most part, this has been a safe assumption. Change has been happening in the manner in which data are produced that is challenging this convention. The emergence of participatory research, where the users and stakeholders of the research, actively participate in defining the problem, designing the project, and actively participating in the analysis, is leading to a change in how science is actually practiced. This approach is particularly effective when the problem to be solved involves a controversial policy. Similarly, smart-phone apps are increasing the opportunity for non-scientists to collect and analyze data, substantially increasing the number of data points for measures of biodiversity, presence of invasive weeds, and patterns of food consumption. Citizen science opens the laboratory door and in many ways is democratizing the practice of research. From a policy perspective, can data and information gathered through citizen science constitute “best available science”? We should explore new ways of validating the information thus generated so it can be used effectively in policy decisions.

Increasing pressure from anthropogenic and climatic change will make it more difficult to identify and maintain key habitats for species. This may be particularly so for species that naturally exhibit high variability in abundance and distribution like the Dickcissel (Spiza americana), a grassland bird. It is thought that the irruptive nature of the Dickcissel is linked with drought conditions within the core breeding range, causing populations to move in search of more suitable conditions. We aim to identify the effect that weather has on regulating the spatial abundance of this species. We generated a temporally-fine-scale species distribution model for the Dickcissel using weather data (1950-2011). To examine the effect of extreme weather on Dickcissels, we used remote sensing products to quantify droughts and heat waves (2001-2011). We found that the Dickcissel habitat, as determined by weather, varied greatly through time, although the core of its range had the most consistent weather across all years. Our results show that low weather suitability is always accompanied by low Dickcissel abundance, suggesting that weather plays a role in limiting its distribution. When weather is unsuitable at one location this species moves to more suitable areas, which may be well outside of its core distribution. In a changing climate with weather becoming more erratic how will we ensure adequate conservation strategies for such weather-sensitive species?

Brazil's Atlantic rainforest has been reduced to 10% of its historical range but still harbors a tremendous amount of endemism and diversity. This is particularly true for amphibians, which are represented by over 300 endemic species. As primary forest is lost and replaced with plantations, the effects of these new matrix types on amphibians are critical to understand. We investigated the effects of the dominant matrix types (coffee plantations, Eucalyptus plantation, and secondary forests) and their edge effects on bromeligenous and leaf litter frogs along a reserve in the mountainous regions of Espírito Santo in southeastern Brazil. Both species diversity and the total abundance of frogs were lower in coffee plantations, Eucalyptus plantations, and secondary forests than in the interior of the reserve. In addition, species diversity in edge habitats was lower than in interior forest for coffee plantations and Eucalyptus plantations matrix types. All bromeliad-dwelling frogs were found only in the forest interior. Results suggest that, in general, 1) species prefer primary forest, 2) matrix habitat types will only be used by some species, and 3) edge effects are greater for matrix types that represent the largest contrast with primary forest. We will discuss the role of the local community in habitat loss and bromeliad collections. We will also discuss our involvement in the local community, including interviews, discussions and education programs.

Probiotics (beneficial bacteria) have been used to prevent and treat disease in agriculture, aquaculture, and humans for many decades. Only recently has this treatment method been used to control disease in a wildlife setting. Current research has shown that a high diversity of bacteria inhabit the skin of amphibians and provide protection to their host against the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). This pathogen causes the disease chytridiomycosis and is responsible for many amphibian declines worldwide. Experiments have demonstrated that treatments of North American amphibians with locally-derived antifungal bacteria have successfully prevented chytridiomycosis in both laboratory and field settings. In this presentation, I will review the current understanding of amphibian skin bacteria and their use as probiotics to identify new tools that will allow us to control chytridiomycosis. In addition, I will discuss characteristics of effective probiotics and techniques to implement a probiotic strategy for at-risk species.

Rather than seeing 'data-poor' environmental management problems as a barrier to good conservation this paper explains a scenario where the use of an easy to administer field methodology can prevent the policy stagnation that has traditionally been associated with such problems. Environmental managers are increasingly recognizing that it can be impossible to collect the detailed data which they desire to inform their decision making. Indeed, where long time series of ecological data are absent both academics and bureaucrats are now advocating data-poor decision making in line with the precautionary principle, and even data-less management. However, few have suggested a similar approach in cases where the data that is 'poor' is socioeconomic in nature. This paper, using the case-study of fisheries management in the Turks and Caicos Islands, shows that quick and simple applied social science techniques can be used to discover wide ranging socioeconomic baselines, identify complex stakeholder networks, and map out potential policies for successful conservation management. Stakeholder feedback for this study was almost uniformly positive with little of the data or findings being questioned. These social science techniques, accessible to all, can be adopted in any environmental management situation where there are human stakeholders and are especially useful in cases where there is little existing information.

The Arctic is changing at an unprecedented rate, with changes in storm surge, surface temperatures, sea ice, and species distribution. Climate change is opening new economic opportunities for tourism, oil/gas extraction, shipping, and commercial fishing. The coupled effects of climate change and the industrialization of the Arctic are causing increasing concern over potential threats to marine life; which ultimately affect Arctic food security. Industries, academic institutions, and governments are conducting assessments to understand how far this unique environment can be pushed before reaching a tipping point. From an Inuit perspective, this must occur through a food security lens to see where the interconnections between systems lie. The understanding of these connections is critical when considering threats to marine mammals. For example, when considering threats to beluga whales one must also consider effects on surrounding cultures to gain a holistic understanding. In response to the need to address food security of traditional food resources, the Inuit Circumpolar-Council Alaska is building a conceptual framework for how to assess food security from an Inuit perspective. The final product, to be shared with state and federal agencies and the Arctic Council, will provide an understanding for elected leaders and policy makers of the concept of food security in the Arctic, what the drivers are, and what will need to be monitored in order to create action plans.

In 2007 SCB became the first professional organization related to natural resources to take responsibility for greenhouse gas emissions from its meetings, publications, and other activities. Our effort has 4 steps (which should be used by any responsible individual, industry, or nation): (1) Estimate emissions. SCB’s annual ecological footprint assessments show that > 95% of our emissions derive from jet fuel burned to take people to our Congresses. (2) Reduce emissions. SCB cut emissions 40% by changing from annual to biennial International Congresses. (3) Replace dirty energy sources with cleaner ones. By itself, SCB cannot replace jet fuel with a cleaner fuel. (4) Offset remaining emissions by storing an equivalent amount of carbon. SCB has invested in 2 projects that have offset about 90% of our impacts since 2007. Moreover, these projects directly benefit biodiversity (by restoring native ecosystems) and improve human livelihoods in the project area. But the direct impact of our efforts is small. Real progress requires global action to reduce emissions and replace polluting energy sources, because no offset project stores carbon as securely as leaving fossil fuels in the ground. Climate change policy is at the top of SCB’s policy agenda. For example, SCB promotes cap-and-trade legislation and opposes development of tar sands which emit more carbon per unit energy than other fuels.

A land facet is a recurring landscape unit defined by topographic, soil, and other abiotic attributes. A reserve design that conserves the stage (diversity of land facets) should also conserve biodiversity (defined as species plus the eco-evolutionary processes that maintain & generate biodiversity), and should do so under any climate regime. The other talks in this symposium articulate the assumptions and evidence for the land-facet approach, and illustrate its use in conservation planning. In this talk we argue that (1) This coarse-filter approach is grounded in the state-factor model of ecosystems. (2) Broader acceptance of the land facet approach depends crucially on demonstrating that a reserve design based on land facets represents biodiversity under at least some facet classification schemes (where a scheme is a combination of abiotic variables, pixel size, and algorithm), and does so better than an equal-sized reserve area composed of randomly-selected units. (3) This demonstration (that land facets are good surrogates) has not occurred because (a) we lack “truth” (accurate maps of biodiversity), (b) there are countless facet classification schemes, and (c) each analysis of surrogacy is specific to one study region and classification scheme and thus cannot support a general inference about surrogacy. (4) The alternative to a land facet approach (designing a climate-robust reserve based on focal species) is fraught with even more uncertainty.

The principles and goals of the relatively new and rapidly growing interdisciplinary field called Compassionate Conservation fit in nicely with the theme of this SCB gathering, namely, "Connecting Systems, Disciplines, and Stakeholders". Compassionate conservation asks us to consider seriously the well-being of individual animals as we make decisions about the health and integrity of larger entities including species, populations, and ecosystems in our attempts to slow and reverse wide-ranging losses of biodiversity. It also asks us to consider the well-being of human as well as nonhuman stakeholders. Almost daily we are forced to make very difficult decisions about "who lives and who dies" and because of limited time, money, person-power, and ever-growing problems, we may have to choose not to pursue certain projects and "let some species or habitats go" or to terminate those programs that are not producing useful results. Some conservation scientists already agree with these possibilities. These sorts of decisions are singularly daunting, but it is clear we cannot continue redecorating nature without paying the price for our unrelenting and destructive ways that result in significant and often irreversible damage. At best we can make decisions that have positive effects on as many nonhuman and human animals as possible and their homes, but it is naive to think that we can actually re-store or re-create ecosystems as they were in the past. Compassionate conservation demands that we no longer ignore nature and that we rewild our hearts and pay close attention to what we have done and where we need to head in the future. We also need to focus on what has worked and not less pessimism and negativity get us down. A guiding principle with which we might choose to begin is "first do no harm".

Soil carbon sequestration is an important link between global warming and soil rehabilitation. This study quantifies the soil organic carbon sequestration potential and the amount of total Nitrogen of Harenna forest (39034'-39052'E, 6027-6054N') with the possibility of carbon trade with 80 samples. It also examines relationship between other environmental variables. Soil carbon analysis used Walkley-Black method and nitrogen used Kjeldahiahl method. Habitat type showed significant effect on soil organic carbon while, overall, that was not the case for soil type, rainfall and temperature. Altitude showed positive correlation with soil organic carbon. Montane forest soils had 315.1 tC/ha and glades 215 tC/ha. Total nitrogen in montane forest was 30.9 tN/ha and 21.5 tN/ha in glades. The only carbon stock, which has got market value, is the additional carbon that is stored in the montane forest over the glade. But this will require preventing deforestation of 1505 ha/yr. The current market value of carbon is between $4 and $8 per ton. The soil organic carbon stoke worth annually, between 801.1$ and 4,415,110 $. Recent result of land use change is of great concern as it has put the deforestation rate at 1500 ha/yr. This will ignore conservation efforts and significantly deplete the soil carbon. Sound sequestration strategy matching the deforestation rate is a priority while putting the available soil organic carbon for voluntary carbon market which has multidimensional benefit.

Climate change will be a top threat to biodiversity in coming decades. Species with small ranges, i.e. endemics, may be at increased risk of extinction, as unsuitable conditions may develop rapidly across their ranges. Human-assisted colonization has been proposed as one option to avoid extinctions by facilitating species in tracking suitable conditions poleward. This experiment explored the viability of this novel conservation approach for Diphylleia cymosa, a forest herb endemic to the southern Appalachian Mountains of the Southeast USA. In Fall 2008, we established a ~1000 km transect of seed sowing sites from 3 locations within the species range to 5 apparently suitable, but unoccupied, sites outside the range in the Northeast USA. Germination in 2009 was relatively high overall (44%) and did not differ significantly within vs. beyond the species range (40% vs. 46%). Survival from the seedling to juvenile stage (2009-2010) was significantly higher inside vs. outside the range (63% vs. 30%), possibly due to increased herbivory beyond the range. However, 2010-12 survival rates have been comparable inside vs. outside the range as juveniles have become established. Growth rates of experimental plants outside the range have been higher than those within the range, despite increased herbivory, and sexual reproduction is possible in 2013. These results suggest assisted colonization may be a viable option for some endemic species.

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) entered into force in 1975 and became the only global treaty to ensure that international trade in plants and animals does not threaten their survival in the wild. Stakeholders include 177 countries, in addition to various NGOs representing conservation, animal welfare, trade, zoological, botanical, and scientific interests. The backbone of CITES is the permit system. Permits are issued only if a country's CITES Authorities (e.g. - U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service) determine that trade is legal and does not threaten the species' survival in the wild. Approximately 35,000 species are protected by CITES. Bigleaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) is an example of a species that has benefitted from CITES protection. In 2001, U.S. imports of bigleaf mahogany reached a high of 85,959m3. After being listed in CITES Appendix II in 2003, bigleaf mahogany imports have declined steadily to a low of 6,823m3 in 2011. Reduction in trade is just one step in ensuring the sustainability of species such as mahogany. CITES provides the legal framework to regulate international wildlife trade. Used in conjunction with strong law enforcement programs and capacity-building, CITES is a valuable tool for many conservation challenges--helping to curtail the rampant poaching of elephants and rhinos, putting a stop to illegal logging, and ensuring the long-term survival of species.

All plant structures at all stages of the life cycle, are subject to be colonized by microorganisms that may modify or interrupt their vital functions. In general terms a “disease” in plant pathology includes a series of microorganisms that disturb plant metabolism such as growth (hypotrophy and/or hyperplasia) in a portion of or throughout an entire plant causing even its death. Infectious agents could be fungi, nematodes, viroids, viruses, bacteria or even other flowering plants (e.g. the parasitic plant Epifagus virginiana). Fungi (sensu lato, i.e. including Oomycetes) are however, the major causal agents of plant diseases (i.e., ca. 75% of all plant diseases are caused by fungi) and jointly with insects comprise the major threat to wild and cultivated plant species worldwide. Fungal infection can cause local or extensive necrosis or abnormal growth in the different structures of plants. Several types of human disturbances in the Neotropics have shown to affect the interaction of plants with their fungal pathogens in natural ecosystems. Disturbance increased the levels of pathogen damage on plants. The observations are limited to foliar pathogens because of their ubiquity in tropical plant communities Firstly, leaf diseases in tropical plants are described; secondly the physical and biological factors involved in disease development and transmission; thirdly, the impact of anthropogenic disturbance in facilitating leaf fungal infection; then the potential consequences of disease spread, and finally, the implications of such disease induced changes in tropical rain forests function and conservation.