Agroinformatics Herdon, Miklós Agroinformatics

1.1. Figure 1.1: Information Fows in Agriculture Error: Reference source not found

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A táblázatok listája

1.1. Table 1.1: Evolving technologies for ICT applications in agricultural and rural areas Error: Reference source not found

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Tárgymutató

1. Introduction

There is scarcely a field of human activity today that has not been touched by the dramatic changes in Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) that have taken place in the last 10-15 years. Agriculture and agriculture-related natural resource management are no exceptions. Information and the technologies that facilitate its use, exchange, and reliability have been important aspects of agriculture and agriculture-related natural resource management for centuries. Decisions on what to plant, when to plant it, how to cultivate and harvest, and where to store and sell and at what price have long depended on knowledge, communication, and information exchange. The importance of information and communication technologies to agriculture is not new, and many traditional methods of managing and communicating information will continue int he future. Some recent ICTs are offering new opportunities, however, to increase the timeliness and availability of critical information, improve its quality and relevance, and offer more cost-effective methods for empowering and ensuring feedback from previously marginalized communities. In addition, the emergence of global agricultural production chains interulinked by digital networks has important implications for the livelihoods of those presently outside of the system.

ICT for Development Strategic Plan defines information and communication technology as the combination of hardware, software, and the means of production that enable the exchange, processing, and management of information and knowledge. ICTs thus include technologies and methods for storing, managing, and processing information (e.g., computers, software, books, PDAs, digital and non-digital libraries) and for communicating information (e.g., mail and email, radio and television, telephones, cell phones, pagers, instant messaging, “the web”, etc.).

In everyday speech, ICTs commonly refer to electronic and digital devices and the software used for storing, retrieving, and communicating information. However, the poorest and most vulnerable populations may have little opportunity or capacity to use or benefit from ICTs so narrowly defined. Broadening the definition to include some older, more traditional technologies and methods (e.g., accounting ledgers, couriers, radio, television, face-to-face training) allows the discussion to focus on the needs of agricultural communities and applicability of new technologies while simultaneously including more technologies available to the rural poor.

1.1. The Importance of Agriculture to Development and the Contribution of ICTs

The agricultural sector is the most critical economic sector in many countries. More than half of the developing world’s population lives in rural areas and is economically dependent on the performance of agricultural production. Agriculture provides food, is generally the largest market for labor, provides tradable goods – hence foreign exchange – for the national economy, and contributes to government budgets through taxation. Long-term improvements in living standards for the rural poor require both resources and innovations to facilitate access to new markets and improve production capacity. ICTs have important roles in each of these areas. Improving agricultural performance is also a prerequisite for economic growth and creation of a stable environment for democracy. Agricultural innovation is understood today to be the result of an interacting constellation of agricultural actors: not just public agencies such as the extension network, but also private firms, NGOs, farmer associations, and others. In this context, ICTs are more than simply a tool to make each entity individually more productive; ICTs offer methods for weaving agricultural actors together into networks that can collectively identify, modify, act on, and implement relevant innovations.

1.2. ICTs, Critical Information Flows, and the Agricultural Knowledge System

The variety of new ICT tools for agriculture is impressive, but the tools need to be placed in an overall context of agricultural information and communication needs. By looking at the critical information needs of agriculture and farming communities, the focus can move away from a compendium of “neat gadgets” and their individual applications toward understanding of their overall role in promoting productive, equitable, and sustainable agriculture. The key framework for this is the Agricultural Knowledge System (AKS), consisting of the organizations, sources of knowledge, methods of communication, and behaviors surrounding an agricultural process. Knowledge is not the same as information: knowledge includes information, understanding, insights, and other information that has been processed by individuals through learning and thought.

Information exchange in the local knowledge system is generally by non-digital means: face-to-face discussions, printed pamphlets, videocassettes, radio broadcasts, etc. Local communities may lack affordable power and communication systems to drive ICTs, or they may need investments in human capacity to maintain them. Increasingly, some communities will begin to have access through such services as cellular phones, rural use of battery or solar-powered personal digital assistants (PDAs) or local telecenters/cybercafés run out of local organizations.

Agricultural knowledge and information needs to be managed like any other key business input. Advances in ICTs have helped create an entirely new discipline, termed knowledge management. Effective knowledge management means that an organization or network of partners gets the right information to the right person at the right time in a user-friendly and accessible manner so that they can perform their jobs efficiently.

Development efforts must improve the capacity of the agricultural knowledge system to manage and disseminate knowledge effectively, particularly to small farming families and women. ICTs can play an important role in ulinking knowledge seekers to knowledge sources. Agricultural research, extension, and development organizations – public or private, for-profit or non-for-profit – are all part of an overall agricultural knowledge system ulinked by information and disseminating important agricultural information to farmers has been an integral part of agricultural development strategies for years. In an ICT-enabled approach, information dissemination from institutionalized knowledge sources will continue to be important, but the real transformation that ICTs make possible is to allow feedback and “return flows” of information from users that tell information suppliers whether the information they supply is useful or relevant and offer guidelines to improve it. Promoting knowledge feedback from rural communities does not necessarily require a connection to the Internet; paper surveys, mailed floppy disks, telephone voice menus, PDAs, and other methods are also options.

The role of the intermediate organization is that of a knowledge management organization whose purpose is to introduce change for the benefit of the clients. These organizations generally avoid issuing prescriptive recommendations; rather, they play an advisory and facilitating role. In short, intermediate organizations are organizations that provide management of information, communication, and knowledge that allow farmers and farmer groups to make better management decisions that will improve their long-term livelihoods.

The critical point is that these knowledge processes do not occur automatically. This is a new role for many support organizations and their staff. Intermediate organizations need training and support in problem diagnosis, problem solving, participatory decision-making, organizing, convening, and motivating all attributes of a successful facilitator. Such training should include how to seek information via the Internet, how to take that information and modify it for their (farming) clients, how to interact with farming households and facilitate knowledge use, and how to follow-up, gather information regarding farms’ experiences, and relay this back to the original information providers and institutionalized knowledge sources.

Designing ICT-enabled knowledge flows between these actors in any specific case requires careful consideration of the types of ICTs accessible by each group and the technological and conceptual packaging of information so that it can flow effectively from one user to the other. Effective ICT deployment explicitly considers the appropriate interfaces between the digital and non-digital worlds, so that those without access to digital ICTs can still benefit from an improved local information environment. From the perspective of the smallholder farmer, the key question is how to gain access to information and resources. These farmers need local support groups that will act as brokers between the available knowledge system and the individual needs of farming households. Developing economical local access for the rural poor and ensuring appropriate content is the essence of bridging the digital divide.

ICTs can accelerate agricultural development by providing more accessible, complete, timely, or accurate information at the appropriate moment to those making key on the ground decisions. Examples of such decisions are: what and when to plant; where to locate agricultural inputs (and at the best price); how to identify and respond to disease, pests, and drought; where to sell products; what new technology options exist for production, post- harvest, and soil fertility control; what agricultural credit programs are available; and how to access relevant government programs, including land titling.

Digital ICTs can add value over traditional methods when: Information is time sensitive (e.g., prices) Information requires significant customization to satisfy a client’s need (e.g., soils content, local policies). The information needed involves standardized calculations (e.g., credit evaluations). Knowledge requires significant back-and-forth interactivity over distances (e.g., locating a remote specialist for disease/pest diagnosis and treatment).

Iinformation and knowledge flows that are important to farming households as they make key agricultural decisions throughout the year. These include knowledge and information about agricultural technologies and methods; the local natural resource base and geography; the policy environment, laws, and regulations; and market information (Figure 1.1).

1.1. ábra - Figure 1.1: Information Fows in Agriculture

2. The Feasibility of Ict in Rural Areas

Some development planners have been skeptical of the cost and benefits of ICT-enhanced strategies over traditional modes of agricultural development assistance since the beginning of the digital revolution. Equipment costs, the technical infrastructure requirements to support PCs, and electrical scarcity in rural areas may at first make ICT investments seem uneconomical. On closer examination, one can easily overestimate the costs and underestimate the aggregate benefits that ICTs can bring, particularly if one starts from the assumption that ICT interventions are limited to desktop computers connected to the Internet. This chapter discusses financial considerations, long-term sustainability, technical issues, rural power requirements and some emerging technologies that are likely to impact the costs, benefits, or applicability of ICTs in rural areas.

2.1. Financial Aspects: Up-front Costs and Long-term Benefits of ICT Approaches

Investments in ICTs look quite inexpensive compared to the cost of large infrastructure investments such as hydroelectric dams and road systems. However, they can seem quite costly compared to the average income of a poor family. On balance, well-planned ICT-enhanced interventions tend to boost the impact and longevity of development assistance, while simultaneously assisting with monitoring and knowledge gathering in project activities. These effects occur because the number of uses for ICTs tends to increase over time as more users become familiar with the technology and as new ICT-based services or content become available.

Connectivity approaches seek to provide target groups with new or upgraded access to ICT equipment and communications capabilities so they may connect to information networks and process the information they need. In rural areas, these approaches often include power systems for running electronic equipment off of the electrical and communications grid. Connectivity provision can be the most difficult activity to undertake cost-effectively, because up-front equipment costs can be substantial, ICT hardware may depreciate rapidly, and servicing and maintenance usually demands that effective management practices be in place.