Company Objectives and Resources

Defining objectives clarifies the orientation of the domestic and international divisions, permitting consistent policies. The lack of well-defined objectives has found companies rushing into promising foreign markets only to find activities that conflict with or detract from the companies’ primary objectives.¹⁵

Foreign market opportunities do not always parallel corporate objectives; it may be necessary to change the objectives, alter the scale of international plans, or abandon them. One market may offer immediate profit but have a poor long-run outlook, while another may offer the reverse.¹⁶ Only when corporate objectives are clear can such differences be reconciled effectively.

International Commitment

The planning approach taken by an international firm affects the degree of internationalization to which management is philosophically committed.¹⁷ Such commitment affects the specific international strategies and decisions of the firm. After company objectives have been identified, management needs to determine whether it is prepared to make the level of commitment required for successful international operations—commitment in terms of dollars to be invested, personnel for managing the international organization, and determination to stay in the market long enough to realize a return on these investments.¹⁸

The degree of commitment to an international marketing cause reflects the extent of a company’s involvement. A company uncertain of its prospects is likely to enter a market timidly, using inefficient marketing methods, channels, or organizational forms, thus setting the stage for the failure of a venture that might have succeeded with full commitment and support by the parent company. Any long-term marketing plan should be fully supported by senior management and have realistic time goals set for sales growth. Occasionally, casual market entry is successful, but more often than not, market success requires long-term commitment.¹⁹

Finally, a new series of studies is demonstrating a strong regional preference for multinational companies as they expand their operations.²⁰ Part of this preference is due to the challenges associated with cultural distance²¹ and part with physical distance, particularly that related to the difficulties of doing business across time zones.²² As we mentioned previously, most countries and companies trade most with their neighbors. Others report that firms also gain competitive advantages from clustering operations in specific regions.²³ Although some disagree,²⁴ researchers question the existence of global strategies, maintaining that only nine American Fortune 500 companies deserve the term “global” with respect to their operational coverage of the planet.²⁵ We can agree that strategic choices currently favor regional foci, but the trend is toward steadily increasing globalization of trade agreements, trade, and company strategies, as we mentioned in the previous chapter. Competition and the new ease of global communications is forcing managers around the world to make greater commitments to global marketing.

Whether a company is marketing in several countries or is entering a foreign market for the first time, planning is essential to success. The first-time foreign marketer must decide what products to develop, in which markets, and with what level of resource commitment. For the company that is already committed, the key decisions involve allocating effort and resources among countries and product(s), deciding on new markets to develop or old ones to withdraw from, and determining which products to develop or drop. Guidelines and systematic procedures are necessary for evaluating international opportunities and risks and for developing strategic plans to take advantage of such opportunities.²⁶ The process illustrated in Exhibit 11.1 offers a systematic guide to planning for the multinational firm operating in several countries.

Whether a company is new to international marketing or heavily involved, an evaluation of potential markets is the first step in the planning process. A critical first step in the international planning process is deciding in which existing country market to make a market investment.²⁷ A company’s strengths and weaknesses,²⁸ products, philosophies,²⁹ and objectives must be matched with a country’s constraining factors and market potential. In the first part of the planning process, countries are analyzed and screened to eliminate those that do not offer sufficient potential for further consideration. Emerging markets pose a special problem because many have inadequate marketing infrastructures, distribution channels are underdeveloped, and income level and distribution vary among countries.

The next step is to establish screening criteria against which prospective countries can be evaluated. These criteria are ascertained by an analysis of company objectives, resources, and other corporate capabilities and limitations. It is important to determine the reasons for entering a foreign market and the returns expected from such an investment. A company’s commitment to international business and its objectives for going international are important in establishing evaluation criteria. Minimum market potential, minimum profit, return on investment, acceptable competitive levels, standards of political stability, acceptable legal requirements, and other measures appropriate for the company’s products are examples of the evaluation criteria to be established.³⁰

Once evaluation criteria are set, a complete analysis of the environment within which a company plans to operate is made. The environment consists of the uncontrollable elements discussed previously and includes both home-country and host-country constraints, marketing objectives, and any other company limitations or strengths that exist at the beginning of each planning period. Although an understanding of uncontrollable environments is important in domestic market planning, the task is more complex in foreign marketing because each country under consideration presents the foreign marketer with a different set of unfamiliar environmental constraints. This stage in the planning process, more than anything else, distinguishes international from domestic marketing planning.

The results of Phase 1 provide the marketer with the basic information necessary to evaluate the potential of a proposed country market, identify problems that would eliminate the country from further consideration, identify environmental elements that need further analysis, determine which part of the marketing mix can be standardized and which part of and how the marketing mix must be adapted to meet local market needs, and develop and implement a marketing action plan.

Information generated in Phase 1 helps companies avoid the kinds of mistakes that plagued Radio Shack Corporation, a leading merchandiser of consumer electronic equipment in the United States, when it first went international. Radio Shack’s early attempts at international marketing in western Europe resulted in a series of costly mistakes that could have been avoided had it properly analyzed the uncontrollable elements of the countries targeted for its first attempt at multinational marketing. The company staged its first Christmas promotion in anticipation of December 25 in Holland, unaware that the Dutch celebrate St. Nicholas Day and give gifts on December 6. Furthermore, legal problems in various countries interfered with some plans; the company was unaware that most European countries have laws prohibiting the sale of citizen-band radios, one of Radio Shack’s most lucrative U.S. products and one it expected to sell in Europe. German courts promptly stopped a free flashlight promotion in German stores because giveaways violate German sales laws. In Belgium, the company overlooked a law requiring a government tax stamp on all window signs, and poorly selected store sites resulted in many of the new stores closing shortly after opening.

With the analysis in Phase 1 completed, the decision maker faces the more specific task of selecting country target markets and segments, identifying problems and opportunities in these markets, and beginning the process of creating marketing programs.

Phase 2: Adapting the Marketing Mix to Target Markets

A more detailed examination of the components of the marketing mix is the purpose of Phase 2. Once target markets are selected, the marketing mix must be evaluated in light of the data generated in Phase 1. Incorrect decisions at this point lead to products inappropriate for the intended market or to costly mistakes in pricing, advertising, and promotion. The primary goal of Phase 2 is to decide on a marketing mix adjusted to the cultural constraints imposed by the uncontrollable elements of the environment that effectively achieves corporate objectives and goals.

The process used by the Nestlé Company is an example of the type of analysis done in Phase 2. Each product manager has a country fact book that includes much of the information suggested in Phase 1. The country fact book analyzes in detail a variety of culturally related questions. In Germany, the product manager for coffee must furnish answers to a number of questions. How does a German rank coffee in the hierarchy of consumer products? Is Germany a high or a low per capita consumption market? (These facts alone can be of enormous consequence. In Sweden the annual per capita consumption of coffee is 11.6 kilograms, in the United States 4.4, and in Japan it’s only 3.6.)³¹ How is coffee used—in bean form, ground, or powdered? If it is ground, how is it brewed? Which coffee is preferred—Brazilian Santos blended with Colombian coffee, or robusta from the Ivory Coast? Is it roasted? Do the people prefer dark roasted or blonde coffee? (The color of Nestlé’s instant coffee must resemble as closely as possible the color of the coffee consumed in the country.)

As a result of the answers to these and other questions, Nestlé produces 200 types of instant coffee, from the dark robust espresso preferred in Latin countries to the lighter blends popular in the United States. Almost $50 million a year is spent in four research laboratories around the world experimenting with new shadings in color, aroma, and flavor. Do the Germans drink coffee after lunch or with their breakfast? Do they take it black or with cream or milk? Do they drink coffee in the evening? Do they sweeten it? (In France, the answers are clear: In the morning, coffee with milk; at noon, black coffee—that is, two totally different coffees.) At what age do people begin drinking coffee? Is it a traditional beverage, as in France; is it a form of rebellion among the young, as in England, where coffee drinking has been taken up in defiance of tea-drinking parents; or is it a gift, as in Japan? There is a coffee boom in tea-drinking Japan, where Nescafé is considered a luxury gift item; instead of chocolates and flowers, Nescafé is toted in fancy containers to dinners and birthday parties. With such depth of information, the product manager can evaluate the marketing mix in terms of the information in the country fact book.

Phase 2 also permits the marketer to determine possibilities for applying marketing tactics across national markets. The search for similar segments across countries can often lead to opportunities for economies of scale in marketing programs. This opportunity was the case for Nestlé when research revealed that young coffee drinkers in England and Japan had identical motivations. As a result, Nestlé now uses principally the same message in both markets.

Frequently, the results of the analysis in Phase 2 indicate that the marketing mix would require such drastic adaptation that a decision not to enter a particular market is made. For example, a product may have to be reduced in physical size to fit the needs of the market, but the additional manufacturing cost of a smaller size may be too high to justify market entry. Also, the price required to be profitable might be too high for a majority of the market to afford. If there is no way to reduce the price, sales potential at the higher price may be too low to justify entry.

The answers to three major questions are generated in Phase 2:

1. Are there identifiable market segments that allow for common marketing mix tactics across countries?

2. Which cultural/environmental adaptations are necessary for successful acceptance of the marketing mix?

3. Will adaptation costs allow profitable market entry?

Based on the results in Phase 2, a second screening of countries may take place, with some countries dropped from further consideration. The next phase in the planning process is the development of a marketing plan.

At this stage of the planning process, a marketing plan is developed for the target market—whether it is a single country or a global market set. The marketing plan begins with a situation analysis and culminates in the selection of an entry mode and a specific action program for the market. The specific plan establishes what is to be done, by whom, how it is to be done, and when. Included are budgets and sales and profit expectations. Just as in Phase 2, a decision not to enter a specific market may be made if it is determined that company marketing objectives and goals cannot be met.

Although the model is presented as a series of sequential phases, the planning process is a dynamic, continuous set of interacting variables with information continuously building among phases. The phases outline a crucial path to be followed for effective, systematic planning.

A “go” decision in Phase 3 triggers implementation of specific plans and anticipation of successful marketing. However, the planning process does not end at this point. All marketing plans require coordination and control during the period of implementation.³² Many businesses do not control marketing plans as thoroughly as they could even though continuous monitoring and control could increase their success. An evaluation and control system requires performance-objective action, that is, bringing the plan back on track should standards of performance fall short. Such a system also assumes reasonable metrics of performance are accessible. A global orientation facilitates the difficult but extremely important management tasks of coordinating and controlling the complexities of international marketing.

Utilizing a planning process and system³³ encourages the decision maker to consider all variables that affect the success of a company’s plan. Furthermore, it provides the basis for viewing all country markets and their interrelationships as an integrated global unit. By following the guidelines presented in Part Six of this text, “The Country Notebook—A Guide for Developing a Marketing Plan,” the international marketer can put the strategic planning process into operation.

With the information developed in the planning process and a country market selected, the decision regarding the entry mode can be made. The choice of mode of entry is one of the more critical decisions for the firm because the choice will define the firm’s operations and affect all future decisions in that market.

Alternative Market-Entry Strategies

When a company makes the commitment to go international, it must choose an entry strategy. This decision should reflect an analysis of market characteristics (such as potential sales, competition,³⁴ strategic importance, strengths of local resources,³⁵ cultural differences,³⁶ and country restrictions and deregulation³⁷) and company capabilities and characteristics, including the degree of near-market knowledge, marketing involvement, and commitment that management is prepared to make.³⁸ Even so, many firms appear to simply imitate others in the industry or repeat their own successful entry strategies—this is not what we recommend. The approach to foreign marketing can range from minimal investment with infrequent and indirect exporting and little thought given to market development to large investments of capital and management in an effort to capture and maintain a permanent, specific share of world markets.³⁹ Depending on the firm’s objectives and market characteristics, either approach can be profitable.

Companies most often begin with modest export involvement.⁴⁰ As sales revenues grow, the firms often proceed down through the series of steps listed in Exhibit 11.2.⁴¹ Successful smaller firms are often particularly adept at exploiting networks of personal and commercial relationships to mitigate the financial risks of initial entry.⁴² Also, experience⁴³ in larger numbers of foreign markets can increase the number of entry strategies used. In fact, a company in several country markets may employ a variety of entry modes because each country market poses a different set of conditions.⁴⁴ For example, JLG Industries in Pennsylvania makes self-propelled aerial work platforms (cherry pickers) and sells them all over the world. The firm actually manufactured in Scotland and Australia beginning in the 1970s, but it was forced to close the plants in the 1990s. However, the company’s international sales have burgeoned again. The growth in European business is allowing for a simplification of distribution channels through the elimination of middlemen; dealerships have been purchased in Germany, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. JLG set up dealership joint ventures in Thailand and Brazil, and sales have been brisk despite economic problems in those countries. The company also has established sales and service businesses from scratch in Scotland, Italy, and South Africa.

Exhibit 11.2: Alternative Market-Entry Strategies

A company has four different modes of foreign market entry from which to select: exporting, contractual agreements, strategic alliances, and direct foreign investment. The different modes of entry can be further classified on the basis of the equity or nonequity requirements of each mode. The amount of equity required by the company to use different modes affects the risk, return, and control that it will have in each mode. For example, indirect exporting requires no equity investment and thus has a low risk, low rate of return, and little control, whereas direct foreign investment requires the most equity of the four modes and creates the greatest risk while offering the most control and the potential highest return.

Exporting accounts for some 10 percent of global economic activity.⁴⁵ Exporting can be either direct or indirect. With direct exporting the company sells to a customer in another country. This method is the most common approach employed by companies taking their first international step because the risks of financial loss can be minimized. In contrast, indirect exporting usually means that the company sells to a buyer (importer or distributor) in the home country, which in turn exports the product. Customers include large retailers such as Wal-Mart or Sears, wholesale supply houses, trading companies, and others that buy to supply customers abroad.

Early motives for exporting often are to skim the cream from the market or gain business to absorb overhead.⁴⁶ Early involvement may be opportunistic and come in the form of an inquiry from a foreign customer or initiatives from an importer in the foreign market. This motive is the case with Pilsner Urquell, the revered Czech beer, which for many years has sold in the United States through Guinness Bass Import Corporation (GBIC). However, the Czech firm severed its relationship with the importer because it wasn’t getting the attention of the other imported beers in GBIC’s portfolio. The firm established its own sales force of two dozen to handle five key metropolitan areas in the United States. Prices were reduced and a global media plan developed with a British ad agency. The firm may import other brands from the Czech parent as well.

Exporting is also a common approach for mature international companies with strong marketing capabilities.⁴⁷ Some of America’s largest companies engage in exporting as their major market-entry method. Indeed, Boeing is the best example, as America’s largest exporter. The mechanics of exporting and the different middlemen available to facilitate the exporting process are discussed in detail in Chapters 14 and 15.

The Internet is becoming increasingly important as a foreign market entry method. Initially, Internet marketing focused on domestic sales.⁴⁸ However, a surprisingly large number of companies started receiving orders from customers in other countries, resulting in the concept of international Internet marketing (IIM). PicturePhone Direct, a mail-order reseller of desktop videoconferencing equipment, posted its catalog on the Internet expecting to concentrate on the northeastern United States. To the company’s surprise, PicturePhone’s sales staff received orders from Israel, Portugal, and Germany.

Other companies have had similar experiences and are actively designing Internet catalogs targeting specific countries with multilingual Web sites. Dell Computer Corporation has expanded its strategy of selling computers over the Internet to foreign sites as well. Dell began selling computers via the Internet to Malaysia, Australia, Hong Kong, New Zealand, Singapore, Taiwan, and other Asian countries through a “virtual store” on the Internet. The same selling mode has been launched in Europe.

Amazon.com jumped into the IIM game with both feet. It hired a top Apple Computer executive to manage its fast growing international business. Just 15 months after setting up book and CD e-tailing sites in Germany and the United Kingdom, the new overseas Amazon Web sites have surged to become the most heavily trafficked commercial venues in both markets. Among the companies with the most profitable e-tailing businesses are former catalog companies such as Lands’ End and L.L. Bean. Interestingly, Lands’ End’s success in foreign markets was tainted by unexpected problems in Germany. German law bans “advertising gimmicks”—and that’s what regulators there called Lands’ End’s “unconditional lifetime guarantee.” Indeed, the firm took the dispute all the way to the German supreme court and lost. Moreover, the uncertainty swirling around the EU’s approach to taxing Internet sales is continuing cause for great concern.

As discussed in Chapter 2, the full impact of the Internet on international marketing is yet to be determined. However, IIM should not be overlooked as an alternative market-entry strategy by the small or large company. Coupled with the international scope of credit card companies such as MasterCard and Visa and international delivery services such as UPS and Federal Express, deliveries to foreign countries can be relatively effortless.