Consumer behaviour

According to Unruh and Unruh (1994), culture is an environment of ideas, experience, beliefs, traditions, customs, institutions, signs, arts and technologies.

1. 
   Culture is dynamic and as such, needs are dynamic. Culture is based on hundred to a thousand years of accumulated circumstances. Each generation adds something of its own before passing it to the next generation therefore culture becomes dynamic and so do the needs. Culture also varies through space.
   
2. 
   Culture is taken for granted meaning that the impact of culture is so natural that its influence on behaviour is taken for granted. As such, products may fail in international markets simply because the local culture may not apply in these markets. Business people have to learn cultural empathy and avoid self reference. Marketers should therefore tailor-make products that suit the products at that moment, position products in such a way that you can penetrate new markets as the culture changes. An example is Gramaphone, LPs, Cassettes, CDs, DVDs, HDDVDs (High Definition DVDs) and now we have External memory storage devices (USBs and external hard drives).
   
3. 
   Culture is lent. Socialisation or enculturation occurs when a person absorbs or learns a culture in which he or she was raised (home, church or school). Acculturation occurs when a person learns a culture in which of a society other than the one in which he or she was raised. The ability to learn culture makes it possible to absorb new cultural trends eg westernisation. Marketers need to research and see which cultures the consumers are learning and which consumption patterns they are adopting.
   

1. 
   Language and symbols
   

2. 
   Rituals
   

4. 
   Culture is shared. It is based on socialisation and creation. Culture cannot exist on its own but must be shared by the members of the society thus acting to reinforce its prescriptive nature. Some needs are culturally conditioned. For example, such cultural conditioning is noticeable in the Moslem culture which prescribes that they can only eat Halaal certified meat.
   
5. 
   Culture facilitates communication. Culture encompasses common habits of thoughts and feeling among people. It can also impede communication across groups because of lack of shared common cultural values. Careless translation of advertising may result in the loss of intended meaning and at the same time suggesting something different, obscene or offensive. Coca Cola wanted to translate this brand into Chinese but because the Chinese language is not made up of a precise alphabet but rather a combination of characters, the closest, they got to translating it read ‘koeka koela’.
   
6. 
   Influence of culture on thinking process. Self reference criterion (SRC) is an unconscious reference to one’s own cultural values, experience and knowledge as basis for decisions. A person’s SRC can prevent one from being aware that there are cultural differences or from recognising the importance of these differences. The marketer who fails to recognise these differences may react to a situation in a way that is offensive to a consumer hence loose business. For example, a woman who values self image and considers herself fashionable and upward mobile leader would purchase designer clothes to reinforce her perception (reinforcing personality)
   

1. 
   Identify and understand the culture and values of target groups
   
2. 
   Identify permanent beliefs, values and customs (position of men in families)
   
3. 
   Focus on the acceptable practices and avoid the offensive ones. (teleology ethics)
   
4. 
   Analyse determining factors in cultural diversity (past and current associations)
   
5. 
   Emphasis cultural acceptability of a product (ZTV programme Murimi Wanhasi)
   
6. 
   Deliver cultural messages to consumers (
   
7. 
   Understand symbolic meanings of adverts
   
8. 
   Determine product quality, packaging, promotion, styling and distribution strategies that are consistent with particular cultural practices.
   

This is a small group within a larger population. It can also be defined as a segment within the same society.

Sub-cultural groups in Zimbabwe

1. 
   Racial sub-culture
   
2. 
   Regional sub-culture
   
3. 
   Religious sub-culture
   

This sub culture reflects the nationalities that contribute to the population that is mow in Zimbabwe. Example of nationalities making up Zimbabwe includes the Indians, Chinese, Nigerians, British, Americans etc.

The regional sub-culture in Zimbabwe includes the Matebeland, Midlands Manicaland and the greater Mashonaland. Marketers should understand the different regional cultures when coming up with the promotional appeal. Regions can be distinguished basing on climatic and environmental factors, consumption patterns or even selection of brand suitability. An example is that, when Ingwebu Beer is being advertised, they use predominantly Ndebele since its target market is the Matebeland region. On the other hand when Delta advertises Chibuku, it predominantly uses Shona, a language that suits its own target market, Mashonaland.

The type of food, clothing and behaviour is usually affected by religion. Failure to understand the religion by the marketer may result in the marketer offending the consumer unintentionally. The way a marketer designs adverts and products should comply with the religious beliefs of the country. What one society considers as mere superstition can be a critical aspect in another culture. For example, the American holiday ‘Halloween’ is regarded in high esteem there but it is never considered as anything above witchcraft in Africa.

NB. Amongst these sub religion cultures, you can further divide them according to age, income product usage, gender etc.

1. 
   It is a process by which one person influences the action or attitude of others who may be opinion seekers or merely opinion recipients. Interactions occur verbally or non-verbally. There are credible sources of information because they have first hand experience therefore they area objective.
   
2. 
   They are category specific ie the person specialises on a certain category of products and socialise with specific group of people.
   
3. 
   They are motivated by the interest of the received because they are not paid for their service.
   
4. 
   For opinion leaders motivation is derived from seeking out status, demonstrating their expertise, assert their superiority, and from self involvement (that is trying to reduce own post purchase dissonance), product involvement (product related experience) or message involvement (to share).
   
5. 
   For opinion seekers or receivers, motivation is derived from the need to reduce search time in needed products or services, the need to obtain new product quality or service, reduce risk, avoid being conned by sales people, the need to compensate for product knowledge deficiency.
   
6. 
   They can provide positive or negative product information.
   
7. 
   They are socially well integrated.
   
8. 
   It is a two way process. Opinion givers can be opinion seekers i.e. opinion leader in one product may be an opinion seeker in another product. For example, in soccer, Lionel Messi would be an opinion leader in soccer but an opinion seeker in computing accessories.
   

Opinion leaders spread out information about a product because they are product specific. They should look for the opportunity to encourage word of mouth. New product designers deliberately design products to have word of mouth (WOM) potential i.e. putting in product something to talk about. Marketers direct communication to opinion leaders to speed the acceptance of advertising messages. For example, Nike designed the Air Jordan Sports shoes (Snickers) after the legendary basketball player; Michael Jordan. This was during his time playing for Chicago Bulls.

Marketers should also know the people who socialise with opinion leaders so that when they create a product, they are able to stress the right features that are sought by their consumers. The features stressed leave the opinion leader with something to say to the opinion seekers.

Opinion leaders are however not restricted to one income or social group but are spread throughout all levels of the society. As such, mass marketing becomes easier.

Marketing programmes are designed or aimed at persuading consumers to tell their friends about the goodness of their product or service. Television adverts portrays women in informal communication or conversation about a product or service and their satisfaction with it. For example, OMO adverts

Segment markets according opinion leaders or opinion seekers.

You can also visit schools, colleges, work places to persuade people to spread word of mouth.

Consumers place more credibility in informal communication source than in paid adverts or company sales people.

While word of mouth is extremely effective, negative comments may damage the company or product image therefore product designs should be carefully crafted to avoid negative comments. For example, use of Surf (Unilever Product) resulted in the users of this product having chuffed hands. As a solution to this problem, Unilever advised users of the Surf to use Vaseline on their hands.

Promotional efforts should be directed to opinion leaders as they carry the word to the masses ie product diffusion.

Opinion leaders are innovators because they tend to try new products first and then influence other to buy them.

Measurement of Opinion Leaders

There are four basic measurement techniques that can be used to see the impact of opinion leaders on consumption behaviour.

1. 
   Self designated method
   

2. 
   Socio-metric method
   

3. 
   The key informant method
   

4. 
   The objective method
   

Kotlar and Keller (2006) defined reference groups as primary and secondary reference groups. Primary; as the family, neighbours and workmates. There are personal, continuous and informal interactions with a member.

1. 
   The influence attitudes and self concept
   
2. 
   They create pressure for conformity and product choice
   
3. 
   They help to identify permanent characteristics and facts
   
4. 
   They become role models that influence consumer actions
   
5. 
   They have both positive and negative influence on buying decision
   
6. 
   They act as a point of comparison
   
7. 
   They act a s a basis for forming values, attitudes and consumption behaviours
   
8. 
   Reference groups provide an understanding of interrelations between consumers.
   
9. 
   Marketers can use reference groups to influence positive attitudes towards a brand.
   
10. 
    Symbolic reference groups are used when advertising a brand.
    

Normative	Comparative
The immediate family that moulds the child	Those with admirable lifestyles
Primary influencers	Secondary influencers
Detect values and consumption behaviour	Indirect influencers e.g. celebrities
Values internalise	Values imitated
Demand conformity to family values and behaviour	Weighed against family values and behaviour

1. 
   To inform or make individuals aware of specific product or brand
   
2. 
   They provide individuals with an opportunity to compare his or her thinking with the attitude of the group.
   
3. 
   They influence the individual to adopt attitudes and behaviour that are consistent with the norms of the group.
   
4. 
   They legitimise the individual to use the same product.
   

1. 
   Shopping reference groups (these are influential people who meet during the shopping process. Individuals ask for advice from experienced shoppers. Shopping reference groups have a wide knowledge about products and the shopping process)
   
2. 
   Friendship reference groups (friends can influence what, when, and how to buy a product. Friends influence an individual to modify or divert from family values and consumption patterns)
   
3. 
   Virtual reference groups (individuals who communicate and share information on the internet) consumers with similar interests and tastes share product information on the internet
   

Secondary reference groups become more influential as the individual matures and continues to meet non family members.

1. 
   Knowledge and experience
   

2. 
   Credibility
   

3. 
   Communication skills
   

4. 
   Product conspicuousness (easily seen or described)
   

According to Schiffman and Kunuk (2000), there are four ways of influencing buying decisions.

1. 
   Making prospective buyers aware of the existence and quality of the brand
   
2. 
   Giving individuals the opportunity to compare their thoughts with those of the group.
   
3. 
   Influencing the individual to adapt attitudes and behaviour consistent with the group.
   
4. 
   Legitimising the buying and use of the same product as the group.
   

Reference groups can be used by advertisers to target their message to specific market segments. Three major types of reference appeals are used to reach these segments.

1. 
   Celebrities e.g. musicians, movies stars, TV. personalities, sports persons. Econet uses celebrities in its adverts. Pictures of Oliver Mtukudzi, Nelson Mandela and Mother Theresa are hung in Econet shops and they can also be seen on adverts. Econet regards them as a source inspiration and they link this to their message; ‘Inspired to change your world’.
   

The celebrities are used as;

1. 
   Spokespersons, when they represent a brand or company eg Lifebuoy who use Yvonne Chaka Chaka;
   

2. 
   Testimonial, celebrities give a testimonial citing the product’s benefit eg Stacey Ferguson (Karabo Moroka on Generations) who appears on the Gernier advert;
   

3. 
   Actor, the celebrity may is asked to present a product or service as a character performance. Eg Lazarus Boora (Gringo) when he advertised the Maggi Soup.
   

2. 
   An expert refers to a reference group appeal in which a person because of his special training or experience in a certain position helps the prospective consumer evaluate the product or service the marketer is promoting. The expert should comment on the features of the product. For example, Peter Ndlovu may be asked by a soccer ball manufacturer to comment on its soccer balls.
   
3. 
   A common man or person. Sometimes advertisers may use a common man from the street rather than an expert or celebrity. This reference group appeal features testimonials of satisfied customers. It demonstrates to the prospective consumer that someone just like him or her uses and is satisfied with the product. Eg adverts of living positively with HIV/AIDS.
   

1. 
   Influencing the individual to adopt attitudes and behaviour consistent with the group
   
2. 
   They create pressure for conformity and product choice
   
3. 
   They become role models that influence consumer actions.
   
4. 
   They act as points of comparison
   
5. 
   Understanding consumer rights
   
6. 
   Avoid politically and educationally offensive marketing strategies
   
7. 
   Capitalise on electronic advertising
   

1. 
   These are groups that stand for consumer rights (example if CCZ).
   
2. 
   They may be temporary or permanent.
   
3. 
   They assist the consumer make the right purchase decision, advise people to consume products and services in a healthy and responsible manner.
   
4. 
   They stand for and address consumer concerns.
   
5. 
   They fight against consumer abuse, insecurity and environmental damage
   
6. 
   They stand for consumers’ political, educational and legal right issues
   
7. 
   They lead protest against ‘dumping’, overpricing, unhealthy products and unethical marketing practices.