Faà di Bruno, Giovanni Matteo [Horatio, Orazio] Fabbri, Anna Maria
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- 8. Works: characteristics and historical importance.
- 9. First publications: ‘Madrigali’ and ‘Fantasie’ (1608).
- 10. ‘Recercari, et canzoni’ and ‘Primo libro di toccate’ (1615).
- 11. ‘Capricci’ and ‘Secondo libro di toccate’ (1624–7).
- 12. Music for voices and for instrumental ensemble (1627–30).
- 13. Last keyboard publications (1634–7).
- 14. Manuscript repertory.
- 15. Influence and reception.
- BIBLIOGRAPHY 17th-century documents
6. Pupils.As Maugars suggested, despite the printed repertory which Bartolomeo Grassi advised every keyboard player to provide himself with, personal contact with the art of improvisation constituted the culminating experience of Frescobaldi's pupils. (It becomes increasingly clear that 17th-century Italian manuscript compositions for teaching purposes were aide-mémoire or groundplans, rather than exact notations.) Frescobaldi taught throughout his professional life (Silbiger, 1980; Annibaldi, 1995). In Florence his pupils included Bernardo Roncagli, Filippo Bandini, and Francesco Nigetti, who invented an omnicordo and taught Giovanni Maria Casini. Frescobaldi's Roman pupils – Borbone, Grassi, Luigi Battiferri, Leonardo Castellani, Lucia Coppi, Giovanni Battista Ferrini, Tommaso Luna, Francesco Muti, Giovanni Angelo Muti, and the Pistoiese Valerio Spada (the protégé of Giulio Rospigliosi's brother) – have left important documentation. Battiferri published a collection of Ricercari in 1669. The manuscripts connected with Frescobaldi in the Chigi collection (I-Rvat) may have come from Castellani and may contain Frescobaldi autographs (fig.3). Ferrini and ‘Franceschino’ Muti performed with Frescobaldi at the Crocifisso, and Ferrini's works are transmitted in the Muti manuscript (Rvat Mus.569). The most famous of Frescobaldi's pupils was J.J. Froberger, who came with a subsidy from the imperial court in Vienna to study in Rome in 1637–41. Contrary to what is often asserted, Michelangelo Rossi did not study with Frescobaldi; Johann Kaspar Kerll, Johann Heckelauer and Franz Tunder have also been incorrectly cited as his pupils. Frescobaldi, Girolamo Alessandro 7. Portraits.Frescobaldi was depicted by Claude Mellan, a French artist and engraver active in Rome in 1624–37, in a black chalk drawing (fig.1) which seems to be the source of subsequent engravings: a rather crude representation by Jean Saillant, engraved by Christianus Sas, in the second book of Toccate, and Mellan's own engraving. Both of these have inscriptions which give the subject's age as 36, which would date them implausibly eight years before Mellan's arrival in Rome. The painting from Schloss Ambras, Innsbruck (reproduced in Girolamo Frescobaldi: Ferrara 1983), follows the same tradition. A caricature by Bernini strongly resembles Frescobaldi (fig.2). Frescobaldi, Girolamo Alessandro 8. Works: characteristics and historical importance.Frescobaldi was the first important European composer to concentrate on instrumental music. In bulk alone his surviving keyboard works surpass those of any predecessor or contemporary and they encompass virtually every type of keyboard composition known to the period. The foundation of his music is the ancient tradition of Franco-Flemish counterpoint, absorbed in his early years in Ferrara under the tutelage of Luzzaschi. It formed the basis for the tight construction of his music from motivic cells that are developed by a continual process of interplay, variation and transformation. Frescobaldi's fertile musical imagination found nourishment in many additional sources: the expressive discords and chromaticisms of the contemporary madrigal, the declamatory rhythms and affective figures of seconda pratica recitative, the brilliant preludes and interludes improvised by virtuoso church organists, the free, ever-changing textures of lute and theorbo playing and the earthy vitality of popular songs and dances. His keyboard style in particular is thought to draw on diverse elements: from Ferraresi like Luzzaschi and Ercole Pasquini, from Venetians like the Gabrielis and especially Merulo, and from Neapolitans like Macque (actually from the north, by way of Rome), Trabaci and Mayone. Frescobaldi, however, did not merely emulate the appropriated styles, forms and conventions; he played with them, confronted them, crossed them, recreated them and turned them upside down. Like few composers before him, Frescobaldi took on the challenge of creating a substantial musical narrative not carried by a text – an endeavour that continued to engage him through more than three decades of creative activity. In each of his works a unique plot unfolds against the setting of a particular genre, instrumentation, mode or tonal type, or (especially in the contrapuntal works) Obbligo or compositional premise. (On the obbligo tradition in early 17th-century Italy see Durante in Silbiger, 1987.) Musical ideas stated at the outset serve as central characters and are taken through a succession of episodes in which they may undergo repeated transformations. In these episodes Frescobaldi availed himself of a wide range of styles, often borrowing from other genres; this practice, especially notable in compositions from the 1620s (e.g. the capriccios in A.5 and toccatas and canzonas in A.6) but already present in the early fantasias in A.1, sets him apart from most of his predecessors and contemporaries, and allows these works to be sustained over considerable stretches of time. In the 1630s his experiments with extended narratives included, in addition, the joining of different dance forms, either as separate pieces or bridged by transitional passages. Particularly novel was his use of dramatic tempo changes between successive sections. Although some changes are achieved by accent shifts (metric modulation) or mensural proportions, others are no longer mediated by tactus continuity but governed by the expressive affect of each episode. Indeed, at the end of a section the sense of a tactus may be wiped out entirely by an extended cadential flourish. Thus, many tempo changes are not prescribed with mathematical precision; although Frescobaldi provided some guidance with his prefatory instructions and manner of notation, the performer has ultimate responsibility for their execution (for different views see Darbellay and Murata in Silbiger, 1987). The musical ideas or subjects themselves become more distinctive and individual through the years, and therefore easier to follow in their journeys through the episodes. In the early works they tend to derive from the stereotypical modal and ultimately chant-derived language of Renaissance polyphony, but in later compositions they often include triadic elements or outline functional harmonic progressions, and quite a few are based on easily recognizable popular tunes and motifs (like la Bergamasca and the cuckoo call). Tonal areas and modulations tend to play a secondary role in the structuring of Frescobaldi's narratives. In general, the development of his tonal language reflects the trends of the early Seicento (some scholars even regard him as conservative, but that may reflect his concentration on instrumental music). The ‘white-key’ diatonic system, or its transposition by one flat, with limited chromatic alterations, provides the basic pitch material, regardless of the tonal centre, but in his later works (especially in A.8) the range of the alterations widens, allowing for such previously uncommon tonalities as E minor, with D leading notes. Clear goal-directed harmony in the service of extended cadential preparation becomes more prevalent, and there are occasional examples (e.g. in the Cento partite) of modulations to different key areas. The conventional ordering of sets of pieces according to the church tones is observed in the early publications A.1–6, but no longer in collections, such as A.5 and A.6, published after 1620.
The fantasias are complex works which challenge performers and listeners alike. Most start with the calm and spacious imitative polyphony that characterized the late 16th-century ricercares, but in many the texture soon shifts to a dense web of motifs or fast-paced metric and rhythmic styles not usually associated with that genre. In addition to undergoing traditional augmentations, diminutions, inversions and ostinatos, subjects are often transformed by chromatic passing notes, rhythmic distortions and, through the Inganno technique, even more radical changes of shape. These transformations generate a rich supply of motifs and counter-motifs that may eventually saturate the entire texture. Frescobaldi, Girolamo Alessandro 10. ‘Recercari, et canzoni’ and ‘Primo libro di toccate’ (1615).In 1615 Frescobaldi brought out two new publications of keyboard music, A.2–3 and A.4. These formed the first instalment of a published canon of works that until his last years he would continue to revise, refine and extend. Evidently the earlier publications of 1608 were regarded as youthful works that did not form part of this canon: he never published revisions or reprints of them. (Manuscript copies of the Fantasie show that, nevertheless, they continued to interest later musicians: among surviving copies is one by Bernardo Pasquini, the leading late 17th-century keyboard master.) The two 1615 collections provided a compendium of the keyboard genres of the time. Each genre is represented in its purest form, as if to clarify its identity, and each is exemplified by a series of pieces that exhibit a wide range of possibilities. The distinction between the two volumes can be seen as a larger stylistic categorization, analogous (though not identical) to Monteverdi's prima and seconda pratica (of course, the relation to the text – the principal basis of Monteverdi's division – plays no role here), or to Bernhard's stylus gravis and stylus luxurians. Like A.1, A.4 was typeset in four-part open score and no instrument is mentioned in its title. Although the pieces were no doubt conceived primarily for keyboard, they are, first of all, works of musical counterpoint which could be played on harpsichord, organ or even by an instrumental ensemble. The pieces in A.2–3, elegantly engraved in two-stave keyboard score, were, on the other hand, designed for a particular medium, as indicated by the title (the first editions mentioned only ‘cimbalo’; later editions added ‘et organo’) and confirmed by the style of the music. Within each volume there are further subdivisions of this stylistic hierarchy. The ricercares in A.5 represent the ‘old style’ in a deliberately archaic manner. Like the fantasias of A.1, they rely on time-honoured contrapuntal techniques, but the counterpoint is less dense than that of the fantasias, making the individual voices easier to follow. Each ricercare displays a different combination of contrapuntal artifices, thus illustrating the subclasses of the genre. Unlike the fantasias and many ricercares of earlier composers, no figurations in fast note values or sections in lighthearted triple metre are allowed to distract from their stylistic purity, and the introduction of accidentals is comparatively restrained. However, the ‘old style’ is more on the surface than in the substance, and the ricercares are by no means stodgy or lacking in wit. For examples of the latter, see ricercare no.6, which has fun with the Fra Jacopino ditty (the Italian Frère Jacques), and no.8, which avoids all motion stepwise. The canzonas in this collection, although in a relatively conservative idiom, have less restrictive compositional premises and allow for a greater variety of metrical organizations and rhythmic patterns. Their central device, one already explored in A.1, is the transformation of a subject through a series of clearly articulated imitative sections in different rhythmic textures. Both ricercares and canzonas were frequently employed during church services, but bringing the two together in a single volume was appropriate for another reason: the two genres, differentiated by contrasting characteristics within a shared stylistic tradition, apparently formed an intriguing duality in the minds of the composer and his contemporaries. Similar dualities existed on different levels of the genre hierarchy, from the overall dichotomy of the old and new style to the romanesca–Ruggiero and the chaconne–passacaglia pairs, and Frescobaldi was to explore such dualities in several subsequent compositions. Compared with the ricercares, the toccatas in A.2–3 stand at the other end of the stylistic spectrum. With these works Frescobaldi laid the foundation of the expressive keyboard style; they are the instrumental equivalents of the seconda pratica madrigals, sacrificing the traditional modes of composition to the expression of affetti (feelings, moods). As with the madrigals, this expression requires an unprecedented flexibility of tempo and rhythm; the novelty of this performance manner is apparent from the composer's instructive remarks in his prefatory notes (English translations in Hammond, Girolamo Frescobaldi, 1988). Although the toccatas differ markedly among each other in character and shape, they are kept stylistically ‘pure’, like the ricercares. No distinct segments of strict imitative counterpoint (often present in toccatas by earlier composers) are permitted to interrupt the free play of sound, even if the seemingly improvisatory passage-work is always supported by solid contrapuntal underpinnings. There is little doubt that these works, and perhaps even more the toccatas in his second book (A.6), are largely responsible for the fascination Frescobaldi has exerted on musicians throughout the ages; their purely musical expression of intense and continually shifting passions has had few equals. A third style, which one could call the popular style, also makes its appearance in this volume. It is represented by the partite, variations on traditional songs, and by a set of correntes. Actually, the correntes did not appear until the second edition of the volume, issued only a month after the first; they represent the popular style in its purest form. Although the settings of dances and popular songs had formed part of the Italian keyboard repertory almost since its beginnings, most earlier examples tended to be simple melody and bass settings, reinforced by triadic chords that followed each other with little regard for smooth part-writing. Frescobaldi introduced a more subtle and varied style in his dance and song settings, enlivened by a continuous entry of new voices which vanish again before they have a chance to burden the texture. With their bold sweeps over the keyboard, the four correntes show the exuberance and easily flowing inspiration of a composer who has just reached his full powers. The apparent simplicity of Frescobaldi's charming dance-tunes represents a side of his art far removed from that of his works in the learned and expressive styles; but they must have found appreciative audiences in households across Europe, for they made their way into the unpretentious dance collections of many countries. Some of the partite, especially those on the romanesca and the Ruggiero, contain a blend of the popular and expressive styles – the earliest examples of Frescobaldi's efforts to enrich keyboard music by the synthesis of different styles. The lovely romanesca set, whose variations introduce a wide spectrum of expressive characters, is deservedly among his most often performed harpsichord works. Frescobaldi, Girolamo Alessandro 11. ‘Capricci’ and ‘Secondo libro di toccate’ (1624–7).The years 1624–8 produced a second wave of publications, beginning with the Capricci (A.5). The capriccios are mostly works of imitative polyphony, but they do not follow any single genre convention; stylistic procedures are borrowed from the ricercares and the canzonas, and even occasionally from the variations and, in some cadential flourishes, from the toccatas. Each capriccio is based on a distinct idea, which may take the form of a traditional contrapuntal subject like the hexachord, a popular melody like La Spagnoletta, or an unusual compositional device like the upward resolution of suspensions. Several capriccios bring to mind the fantasias, in that the subject is taken through a series of distinct, contrasting episodes; but in addition to shifting metres and rhythms, both gradual and abrupt changes of tempo (sometimes as a sequence of progressive accelerations) have become part of their individual plots. However, whereas the subjects of the fantasias tended to be generic and easily absorbed into the polyphonic fabric, those of the capriccios are distinct and memorable (if not already familiar to the listeners as popular tunes); furthermore, their paths through the piece are not obscured by the excesses of inganni and rhythmic distortions. The capriccios are not among the most performed of Frescobaldi's works, but they provide the connoisseur with continual surprises and pleasures and demonstrate Frescobaldi's compositional ingenuity and imagination functioning at their highest levels. In 1626 Frescobaldi published the contents of A.4 and A.5 together in a single volume (A.5a) – a suitable combination, since they share a four-part contrapuntal texture and open-score notation. The following year saw the publication of a second Libro di toccate (A.6). Like the first book, this volume encompasses several other genres in addition to toccatas, but the conception of some of these has considerably broadened, in part by crossing the very genre boundaries that were so clearly staked out in the 1615 collections. The toccatas cover still more types and styles, including the occasional insertion of canzona-like segments. Passages in various triple and compound metres, absent from the first book, introduce further variety. In addition, four toccatas are specifically designated for the organ: two are of a contemplative type ‘per l'elevatione’ and two are pedal toccatas (actually designated ‘with or without pedals’, and, indeed, they work either way). The mixture of organ and harpsichord pieces, not found in the first book, is carried further by the inclusion of a group of liturgical plainchant variations, as well as by more dances and partite. Another set of canzonas considerably extends the stylistic boundaries, in part by the admixture of improvisatory toccata elements, graceful dance gestures and echoes of the dynamic new violin repertory. Finally, Frescobaldi paid homage to the past with his only published contribution to one of the most ancient of keyboard genres: an intabulation of a vocal composition (Arcadelt's madrigal Ancidetemi, pur, set previously by several Neapolitan composers). Yet even with this archaic gesture he distanced himself from his predecessors; rather than piling fanciful decorations on top of the original madrigal, he achieved a total metamorphosis, turning his intabulation into an idiomatic and expressive keyboard work not unlike the toccatas with which it is placed (in effect taking the place of the 12th toccata; see Silbiger, 1995). Frescobaldi, Girolamo Alessandro 12. Music for voices and for instrumental ensemble (1627–30).Among the partite in A.6 are sets on the chaconne and the passacaglia. Frescobaldi appears to have been one of the first to introduce these genres into the written art-music repertory, and may have been the first to bring them together as a pair. His individual conception of these two genres and their relationship was to serve other composers as a model, but he seems not to have been happy with the particular guises in which they appeared here, since he omitted these settings when he revised the volume. All Frescobaldi's published collections since the madrigals of 1608 had been devoted to keyboard music, although through the years a number of vocal pieces on sacred and secular texts had appeared in miscellaneous contemporary anthologies. In his next four publications, from the years 1627–30, he offered a large quantity of ensemble music for voices and instruments, much of it probably written over an extended period but not previously published. As is the case with his keyboard publications (which, similarly, may have gathered together earlier works), each volume nevertheless presents a carefully planned and logically arranged series of pieces, exhibiting many different types of compositions within a given framework. The 1627 collection of 32 small motets (D.5) and the 1628 collection of 40 ensemble canzonas (B.2 and 2a) are in many ways counterparts to one another. Each volume presents a series of pieces for one to four parts in various combinations of high and low voices. Compared to the contemporary keyboard collection (A.6), both are written in a conservative, restrained idiom that makes them suitable for liturgical use, although, unlike the keyboard ricercares, they are not confined to a deliberately purified old style and include numerous expressive embellishments. The ensemble canzonas were published both as a set of partbooks (B.2) and (in an edition prepared by Frescobaldi's pupil Bartolomeo Grassi) in open score (B.2a); the latter edition also included a few curious pieces with obbligato spinettina parts. The two volumes of secular songs (A.5 and 6) appeared in 1630, when Frescobaldi served at the Medici court in Florence, but many were probably written earlier in Rome (Hill; see Silbiger, 1987). Like the sacred concertos and ensemble canzonas, the songs explore different combinations of high and low voices, but in addition present a diversity of vocal (and poetic) genres, designated by the composer as ‘canto in stile recitativo’, ‘aria’, ‘sonetto’, ‘madrigale’, ‘canzone’ etc. Among these works are two genre pairs that Frescobaldi had coupled previously in keyboard settings: the romanesca–Ruggiero and the chaconne–passacaglia. In the latter pair, ostinato aria sections move through different keys and alternate with modulatory recitatives, thus creating miniature recitative–aria chains. Frescobaldi, Girolamo Alessandro 13. Last keyboard publications (1634–7).In 1635 Frescobaldi brought out another publication of keyboard music, the Fiori musicali (A.7). This is his only collection containing exclusively service music for the church, specifically for the celebration of Mass, and it was to be his last publication devoted entirely to new works. Unlike his earlier collections, it is not organized by genre but according to the order of the Mass, and presents three cycles, for the Sunday Mass, the Mass of the Apostles and the Mass of the Virgin (which together provide the music for just about any Mass except those for memorial services). Frescobaldi published the collection in Venice and it may originally have been composed for use at S Marco and similar major churches, since the three cycles conform to their liturgical needs rather than to those of small parish churches (Moore; see Silbiger, 1987). The music in A.7 cuts across several styles and genres, the only constraint being appropriateness to the dignity of the service, and some have questioned whether even that line was crossed in the two capriccios on popular tunes that conclude the collection. Virtually all genres found in his earlier works are represented here, except those in the popular style (his last contributions to the popular style would find a place in the supplement to his first book of toccatas, to appear a few years later). The musical language of the Fiori musicali has been especially well received in later times. This probably has to do with the purposefully organized harmonies (although with frequent and often surprising diversions), and with the transparency of the counterpoint, especially in the ricercares and canzonas, which continue the trends already observed in A.4 and A.6, including the use of memorable subjects and quotation of popular tunes. The often played toccatas for the Elevation surpass even those in A.6 for their sustained moods of passionate mysticism. Through the years Frescobaldi continued to prepare new editions of some of his earlier collections. Probably the most thoroughly revised collection was that of the ensemble canzonas; in the 1634 edition (B.3) 10 of the 40 pieces were entirely replaced and another 16 were subject to various degrees of revision (see Harper, in Silbiger, 1987) – further evidence, if any were needed, of Frescobaldi's concern not only for the text of individual works but also for the contents of his collections as a whole. The newly added pieces included yet another Ruggiero–romanesca pair. In 1637 Frescobaldi brought out revisions of both books of toccatas. The first book includes a substantial supplement of pieces in the popular style which appears to have been in preparation for some years and was originally intended for the new edition of the second book. It underwent repeated revision before its final publication; evidence of some of the earlier phases has been detected in pieces and fragments surviving in manuscript (Darbellay, 1988). The added works show that during his last years Frescobaldi became interested in the creation of extended compositions or cycles out of a succession of individual pieces, sometimes joined by transitional passages. Apparently a considerable amount of experimentation preceded the final products, which include several two-movement and three-movement dance sequences, as well as the lengthy Cento partite sopra passacagli. Frescobaldi seems also to have been occupied during this period with refining his conception of the chaconne–passacaglia pair. An example of one of these concludes all but one of the dance cycles, and their opposition (with a brief excursion to the corrente) forms the main subject of the Cento partite. This last work, one of Frescobaldi's most impressive achievements, includes several segments that during a preliminary phase had been destined as parts of separate compositions. The final published version is a masterful essay on the passacaglia and the chaconne and on their relationship. The two genres are conceived dynamically rather than statically; they undergo constant changes of character, mode and tempo, and several times transform into one another through subtle metamorphoses (see Silbiger, ‘Passacaglia and Ciaccona’, 1996). The Cento partite also stretches further the range of chromatic pitches (from D to D) already expanded in other late works, suggesting a turn either towards equal (or other circulating) temperament, or, more likely, use of keyboards with split keys (Barbieri, 1986; see Fabris and Durante). Except for a new edition (1642) of A.5 with only minor revisions, the 1637 volumes were Frescobaldi's last publications. However, among the works surviving only in manuscript are thought to be several that date from his final years but that he did not live to see published. Mention should also be made of a collection of canzonas (A.9) published posthumously in Venice by Alessandro Vincenti, who acquired them after Frescobaldi's death from unknown sources. Frescobaldi, Girolamo Alessandro 14. Manuscript repertory.A substantial amount of music in manuscript has been attributed to Frescobaldi, either in the sources or by modern scholars; the number of keyboard works in particular almost rivals that contained in his printed collections. The geographical distribution of these manuscripts, compiled in France, England, Italy and various parts of the Austro-German empire, reflects the wide reception his music enjoyed during the 17th century. However, by comparison with the published works, the quality of this manuscript repertory is variable; some of it clearly is spurious, misattributed or at best questionable. Even among the works considered to be genuine, many are rather brief and simple, some giving the impression of having been jotted down on the spot for a music lesson. Nonetheless, a number of compositions deserve consideration alongside the major works in the printed collections. Of particular importance is a collection of keyboard manuscripts formerly in possession of the Chigi family and now in the Vatican library (A.16). It has been shown that all these manuscripts most likely belonged to one of Frescobaldi's pupils and assistants, Leonardo Castellani (c1610–67), and that they include materials for teaching composition and improvisation used by Frescobaldi and other musicians associated with the Cappella Giulia at S Pietro (Annibaldi, 1990). One of the manuscripts (Chigi Q.IV.29) includes a set of short pieces in Frescobaldi's own hand dating from his earlier years (fig.3). Other manuscripts contain what are thought to be copies of his works by students or assistants; some of these appear to be earlier versions of pieces published subsequently (Darbellay, 1986, see Fabris and Durante, pp.107–24). The discovery of Frescobaldi's close connection with the Chigi manuscripts has lent credibility to many of the attributed works, and even led to proposing him as author for some of the anonymous pieces, although controversy persists over the authorship of several compositions. The last three toccatas in Chigi Q.IV.25, marked 1, 2 and 3, may provide a glimpse of the compositional development of Frescobaldi's last years. They incorporate several new features that recur in the toccatas of his pupil J.J. Froberger and his younger contemporary Michelangelo Rossi, such as the inclusion of several lengthy and sometimes motivically related canzona segments and the exploration of unusual key areas. If these works are indeed authentic, they may represent the beginning of a third toccata cycle, left unfinished at the composer's death. Some of the composer's last work on the canzona may have survived in a manuscript entitled ‘Fioretti del Frescobaldi’ (A.13) in the hand of his assistant (and the engraver of the two books of toccatas) Nicolò Borbone (see SCKM, ii (1987), pp. v–xiii). The 11 canzonas in that volume show a further development of trends evident in A.7, such as subjects that outline functional harmonic progressions, frequent use of short note values, especially in the sections in triple metre, consistent use of countersubjects and extension of the chromatic compass (from A to A). Relatively few non-keyboard works are preserved in manuscript. Two polychoral mass settings on popular tunes (La monicha and the Aria di Fiorenza) have been ascribed to Frescobaldi by some scholars and included in the Opere complete; but other scholars have questioned Frescobaldi's authorship and have proposed Nicolò Borbone (Annibaldi, 1986; see Fabris and Durante) or Paolo Agostino as more likely authors. A survey of Frescobaldi's works must not fail to mention the two perhaps most widely known compositions, both manifestly spurious: a Fugue in G minor (E.3) now shown to be the work of the 18th-century composer Gottlieb Muffat; and a Toccata (E.4) for cello and piano (often performed in arrangements for concert band and orchestra), probably concocted by the 20th-century Gaspar Cassadó.
Some of the earliest works to be widely circulated were the little dance pieces which started appearing, often anonymously, in popular song and dance manuscripts, as well as in guitar and ensemble arrangements, for example in arrangements of the Corrente primo, I.3, for guitar in battuto chord tablature in Antonio Carbonchi's Le dodici chitarre spostate (Florence, 1643) and for instrumental ensemble in J.E. Kindermann's Deliciae studiosorum (Nuremberg, 1640). For later composers, however, it was the stylus fantasticus of the toccatas that seems to have exerted the greatest fascination; echoes of their extravagant gestures continue to be audible in the keyboard fantasias, preludes and toccatas of the late 17th century and the 18th, especially in Germany. However, the most enduring impact may have come from his works in the ‘learned style’, which assumed a role in the study of instrumental counterpoint comparable to that of Palestrina's music in the study of vocal counterpoint. J.J. Fux, author of the influential treatise Gradus ad Parnassum (1725), used the Fiori musicali as a model for composition in the strict style; his a cappella compositions show more influences from the instrumental polyphony of Frescobaldi than from the vocal polyphony of Palestrina (Riedel; see Silbiger, 1987). Works in the contrapuntal style were copied by J.S. Bach and by his followers, including C.P.E. Bach, Kirnberger and Forkel (C.P.E. Bach named Frescobaldi among the composers who influenced his father). Anton Reicha included a fugue on a subject from the Fiori in his Dreissig Fugen für das Piano-Forte (Vienna, 1804). During the 19th and 20th centuries the interest in Frescobaldi shifted from a pedagogical to a historical one; a landmark was the 1889 edition of a selection of his works by the organist and scholar Franz Xaver Haberl. Among 20th-century composers, Bartók took an interest in his music, performing and publishing brilliant piano adaptations, and Jehan Alain paid tribute with his Hommage à Frescobaldi for organ.
WORKSEditions:Girolamo Frescobaldi: Opere complete, ed. E. Darbellay and others, Monumenti musicali italiani (Milan, 1975–), i, iv, v, viii, x, xvii [O] letters and figures in the left margin identify publications referred to in the text keyboardEditions:Girolamo Frescobaldi: Orgel- und Klavierwerke, ed. P. Pidoux (Kassel, 1949–54) [P]Girolamo Frescobaldi: Keyboard Compositions Preserved in manuscripts, ed. W.R. Shindle, CEKM, xxx (1968, 2/1982) [Sh]
instrumental ensembleEdition:Girolamo Frescobaldi: Ensemble Canzonas, ed. B. Thomas (London, 1975–7) [T]
italian vocalEdition: Girolamo Frescobaldi: Arie musicali (Florenz 1630), ed. H. Spohr, Musikalische Denkmäler, iv (Mainz, 1960) [Sp]
latin vocalEdition: Girolamo Frescobaldi: Mottetti a 1, 2 e 3 voci con continuo, ed. C. Stembridge (Padua, 1987) [St]
doubtful and spurious
Frescobaldi, Girolamo Alessandro BIBLIOGRAPHY17th-century documentsA. Superbi: Apparato degli huomini illustri della città di Ferrara (Ferrara, 1620) V. Giustiniani: Discorso sopra la musica de' suoi tempi (MS, I-La, 1628); Eng. trans., MSD, ix (1962), 63ff A. Banchieri: Lettere armoniche (Bologna, 1628/R), 63 S. Bonini: Prima parte de' discorsi e regole sopra la musica (MS, n.d.); ed. L. Galleni Luisi, IMa, ii/5 (1975); Eng. trans. M.A. Bonino (Provo, UT, 1979) W. Schoensleder: Architectonice musices universalis (Ingolstadt, 1631, 2/ 1684) M. Mersenne: Harmonicorum libri, in quibus agitur de sonorum natura (Paris, 1635–6) A. Maugars: Response faite à un curieux sur le sentiment de la musique d'Italie [letter of 1 Oct 1639], ed. E. Thoinan (Paris, 1865/R; Eng. trans. in J.S. Shedlock: ‘André Maugars’, Studies in Music, ed. R. Grey, London, 1901) P. Della Valle: Della musica dell'età nostra [letter of 10 Jan 1640], repr. in G.B. Doni: Lyra Barberina amphichordos, ii, ed. A.F. Gori and G.B. Passeri (Florence, 1763/R), 252–3, and in A. Solerti: Le origini del melodramma (Turin, 1903/R) G.B. Doni: De praestantia musicae veteris (Florence, 1647); repr. in Lyra Barberina amphichordos, ed. A.F. Gori and G.B. Passeri (Florence, 1763/R) A. Libanori: Ferrara d'oro imbrunito (Ferrara, 1665–74) A. Liberati: Lettera scritta in risposta … ad una del Signor Ovidio Persapegi 1684 (Rome, 1685) F. Gasparini: L'armonico pratico al cimbalo (Venice, 1708, 6/1802; Eng. trans., 1963/R) C. de Waard, ed.: Correspondance du P. Marin Mersenne, religieux Minime (Paris, 1933–77) For a more complete list of 17th-century documents see Hammond, 1988. biography and historical studiesApelG NewcombMF SolertiMBD A. Solerti: Ferrara e la corte estense nella seconda metà del secolo decimosesto (Città di Castello, 1891, 2/1900) N. Bennati, ed.: Ferrara a Girolamo Frescobaldi nel terzo centenario della sua prima pubblicazione (Ferrara, 1908) A. Cametti: ‘Girolamo Frescobaldi in Roma, 1604–1643’, RMI, xv (1908), 701–40 R. Casimiri: ‘Girolamo Frescobaldi, autore di opere vocali sconosciute ad otto voci’, NA, x (1933), 1–31 H. Prunières: ‘Les musiciens du cardinal Antonio Barberini’, Mélanges de musicologie offerts à M. Lionel de la Laurencie (Paris, 1933), 117–22 R. Casimiri: ‘Tre “Girolamo Frescobaldi” coetanei negli anni 1606–1609’, NA, xiv (1937), 1–10 W. Apel: ‘Neapolitan Links between Cabezón and Frescobaldi’, MQ, xxiv (1938), 419–37 R. Lunelli: L'arte organaria del Rinascimento in Roma e gli organi di S. Pietro in Vaticano dalle origini a tutto il periodo frescobaldiano (Florence, 1958) F.W. Riedel: Quellenkundliche Beiträge zur Geschichte der Musik für Tasteninstrumente in der zweiten Hälfte des 17. Jahrhunderts (Kassel, 1960, 2/1990) A. Cavicchi: ‘Contributo alla bibliografia di Arcangelo Corelli’, Ferrara (Ferrara, 1961), 3–7 W. Apel: ‘Die handschriftliche Überlieferung der Klavierwerke Frescobaldis’, Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer zum sechzigsten Geburtstag, ed. H. Hüschen (Regensburg, 1962), 40–45 M. Fabbri: ‘Giovanni Maria Casini, “Musico dell'umana espressione”: contributo su documenti originali’, SMw, xxv (1962), 135–59 F. Haskell: Patrons and Painters: A Study in the Relations Between Italian Art and Society in the Age of the Baroque (London, 1963, 2/1980) C. Palisca: ‘Musical Asides in the Correspondence of Emilio de' Cavalieri’, MQ, xlix (1963), 339–55 A. Newcomb: ‘Girolamo Frescobaldi, 1608–1615: a Documentary Study’, AnnM, vii (1964–77), 111–58 A. Cavicchi: Introduction to L. Luzzaschi: Madrigali per cantare e sonare a uno, due e tre soprani (1601), MMI, 2nd. ser., ii (1965) R. Jackson: ‘The Inganni and the Keyboard Music of Trabaci’, JAMS, xxi (1968), 204–8 A. Newcomb: ‘Carlo Gesualdo and a Musical Correspondence of 1594’, MQ, liv (1968), 409–36 R. Giazotto: Quattro secoli di storia dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia (Rome, 1970) R. Jackson: ‘On Frescobaldi's Chromaticism and its Background’, MQ, lvii (1971), 255–69 E. Darbellay: ‘Peut-on découvrir des indications d'articulation dans la graphie des tablatures de clavier de Claudio Merulo, Girolamo Frescobaldi et Michel-Angelo Rossi?’, IMSCR XI: Copenhagen 1972 W. Kirkendale: ‘Franceschina, Girometta, and their Companions’, AcM, xliv (1972), 181–235 A. Newcomb: ‘Alfonso Fontanelli and the Ancestry of the Seconda Pratica Madrigal’, Studies in Renaissance and Baroque Music in Honor of Arthur Mendel, ed. R.L. Marshall (Kassel, 1974), 47–68 E. Darbellay: ‘Liberté, variété et “affetti cantabili” chez Girolamo Frescobaldi’, RdM, lxi (1975), 197–243 J.M. Harper: The Instrumental Canzonas of Girolamo Frescobaldi: a Comparative Edition and Introductory Study (diss., U. of Birmingham, 1975) S. Wollenberg: ‘A Note on Three Fugues Attributed to Frescobaldi’, MT, cxvi (1975), 133–5 F. Hammond: ‘Girolamo Frescobaldi in Florence, 1628–1634’, Essays Presented to Myron P. Gilmore, ed. S. Bertelli and G. Ramakus, ii (Florence, 1978), 405–19 J. Harper: ‘Frescobaldi's Early Inganni and their Background’, PRMA, cv (1978–9), 1–12 E. Durante and A. Martellotti: Cronistoria del concerto (Florence, 1979) F. Hammond: ‘Girolamo Frescobaldi and a Decade of Music in Casa Barberini’, AnMc, no.19 (1979), 94–124 A. Silbiger: Italian Manuscript Sources of 17th Century Keyboard Music (Ann Arbor, 1980) A. Silbiger: ‘The Roman Frescobaldi Tradition, c. 1640–1670’, JAMS, xxxiii (1980), 42–87 C.V. Palisca: G.B. Doni's ‘Lyra Barberina’: Commentary and Iconographical Study; Facsimile Edition with Critical Notes (Bologna, 1981) M. Pascale, ed.: Luzzasco Luzzaschi: Il secondo libro de ricercari a quattro voci (Rome, 1981) E. Darbellay: ‘L'énigme de la première édition (1624) des Capricci de Girolamo Frescobaldi’, Canadian University Music Review, iii (1982), 123–57 E. Durante and A. Martellotti: L'arpa di Laura (Florence, 1982) A. Cavicchi: ‘Per far più grande la meraviglia dell'arte’, Frescobaldi e il suo tempo (Venice, 1983), 15–39 Girolamo Frescobaldi: Ferrara 1983 [incl. E.S. Buracchio: ‘Presenza di Girolamo Frescobaldi a Colle Val d'Elsa’, 47–62; A. Cavicchi: ‘Appunti sulle relazioni tra Frescobaldi e l'ambiente musicale marchigiano: l'intavolatura di Ancona’, 87–106; E. Darbellay: ‘I manoscritti Chigi Q.IV.24 e Q.VIII.205/206 come fonti frescobaldiane: criteri filologici di autenticità’, 107–24; C. Annibaldi: ‘Ancora sulle messe attribuite a Frescobaldi: proposta di un profittevole scambio’, 125–52; A. Silbiger: ‘Tipi tonali nella musica di Frescobaldi per strumenti a tastiera’, 301–14; E. Darbellay: ‘Le Cento partite di Frescobaldi: metro, tempo e processo di composizione 1627–1637’, 361–74; P. Barbieri: ‘Il temperamento equabile nel periodo frescobaldiano’, 387–424] F. Hammond: Girolamo Frescobaldi (Cambridge, MA, 1983); see also review by A. Silbiger, JAMS, xxxvii (1984), 593–603 O. Mischiati: ‘Catalogo delle edizioni originali delle opere di Girolamo Frescobaldi’, L'organo, xxi (1983), 3–82 A. Silbiger: ‘Michelangelo Rossi and his Toccate e Correnti’, JAMS, xxxvi (1983), 18–38 L.F. Tagliavini: ‘The Art of “Not Leaving the Instrument Empty”: Comments on Early Italian Harpsichord Playing’, EMc, xi (1983), 299–308 F. Hammond: ‘Girolamo Frescobaldi and the Hypothesis of Neapolitan Influences’, La musica a Napoli durante il Seicento: Naples 1985, 217–36 W. Witzenmann: ‘Rapporti fra la musica strumentale di Trabaci e quella di Frescobaldi’, ibid., 237–51 J. Lionnet: ‘La musique à Saint-Louis des français de Rome au XVIIe siècle’, NA, new ser., iii (1985), suppl.; iv (1986), suppl. C. Annibaldi: ‘La didattica del solco tracciato: il codice Chigiano Q.IV.29 da Klavierbüchlein d'ignoti a prima fonte frescobaldiana autografa’, RIM, xx (1986), 44–97 C. Annibaldi: ‘Il mecenate “politico”: ancora sul patronato musicale del Cardinale Pietro Aldobrandini (1571–1621)’, Studi musicali, xvi (1987), 33–93; xvii (1988), 101–76 A. Silbiger, ed.: Frescobaldi Studies (Durham, NC, 1987) [inc. F. Hammond: ‘Girolamo Frescobaldi: New Biographical Information’, 13–29; C. Annibaldi: ‘A ritratto of Frescobaldi: Some Problems of Biographical Methodology’, 30–54; S. Parisi: ‘“Licenza alla Mantovana”: Frescobaldi and the Recruitment of Musicians for Mantua, 1612–15’, 55–91; A. Newcomb: ‘The Anonymous Ricercars of the Bourdenay Codex’, 97–123; V. Coelho: ‘Frescobaldi and the Lute and Chitarrone Toccatas of “Il Tedesco della Tiorba”’, 137–56; J.W. Hill: ‘Frescobaldi's Arie and the Musical Circle Around Cardinal Montalto’, 157–94; S. Durante: ‘On artificioso Compositions at the Time of Frescobaldi’, 195–217; F. Riedel: ‘The Influence and Tradition of Frescobaldi's Works in the Transalpine Countries’, 218–32; J. Ladewig: ‘The Origins of Frescobaldi's Variation Canzonas Reappraised’, 235–68; J. Harper: ‘Frescobaldi's Reworked Ensemble Canzonas’, 269–83; E. Darbellay: ‘Tempo Relations in Frescobaldi's Primo libro di capricci’, 301–26; M. Murata: ‘Pier Francesco Valentini on Tactus and Proportion’, 327–50; J. Moore: ‘The Liturgical Use of the Organ in Seventeenth-Century Italy: New Documents, New Hypotheses’, 351–84] E. Darbellay: Suppl. to Girolamo Frescobaldi: Opere complete, ii–iv (Milan, 1988) F. Hammond: Girolamo Frescobaldi: a Guide to Research (New York, 1988) F. Hammond: Review of E. Darbellay, ed.: Girolamo Frescobaldi: Opere complete, iv, JAMS, xli (1988), 527–33 A. Morelli: ‘Nuovi documenti frescobaldiani: i contratti per l'edizione del primo libro di Toccate’, Studi musicali, xvii (1988), 255–65 R. Judd: The Use of Notational Formats at the Keyboard (diss., U. of Oxford, 1989) H. Klein: Die Toccaten Girolamo Frescobaldis (Mainz, 1989) C. Annibaldi: ‘Musical Autographs of Frescobaldi and his Entourage in Roman Sources’, JAMS, xliii (1990), 393–425 C. Attacciati: ‘La notazione dei trilli nelle musiche frescobaldiane per tastiera’, RIM, xxv (1990), 61–99 B. Mitchell: 1598: a Year of Pageantry in Renaissance Ferrara (Binghamton, NY, 1990) F. Hammond: ‘The Influence of Girolamo Frescobaldi on French Keyboard Music’, Ricercare, iii (1991), 147–68 W. Kirkendale: The Court Musicians in Florence during the Principate of the Medici (Florence, 1993) C. Moore: The Composer Michelangelo Rossi: a ‘Diligent Fantasy Maker’ in Seventeenth-Century Rome (New York, 1993) F. Hammond: Music and Spectacle in Baroque Rome (New Haven, CT, 1994) J. Lionnet: ‘La musique à San Giacomo degli Spagnoli au XVIIème siècle’, La musica a Roma attraverso le fonti s’archivio (Rome, 1994), 479–505 P. Macey: ‘Frescobaldi's Musical Tributes to Ferrara’, The Organist as Scholar: Essays in Memory of Russell Saunders, ed. K.J. Snyder (Stuyvesant, NY, 1994), 197–231 S. Vartolo: ‘Girolamo Frescobaldi: annotazioni sulla musica per strumento a tastiera’, NRMI, xxviii (1994), 620–63 C. Annibaldi: ‘Froberger in Rome: from Frescobaldi's Craftsmanship to Kircher's Compositional Secrets’, CMc, no.58 (1995), 5–27 P. Da Col: ‘“Era pensier mio di sposar l’Angiola …”: una lettera ritrovata di Girolamo Frescobaldi’, Musicus perfectus: studi in onore di Luigi Ferdinando Tagliavini, ed. P. Pellizzari (Bologna, 1995), 267–73 E. Darbellay: ‘Forme, temps et mémoire: l'intrigue comme modèle d'unité chez Girolamo Frescobaldi (1583–1643)’, Musicus perfectus: Studi in onore di Luigi Ferdinando Tagliavini, ed. P. Pellizzari (Bologna, 1995), 203–36 F. Krummacher: ‘Phantastik und Kontrapunt: zur Kompositionsart Frescobaldis’, Mf, xlviii (1995), 1–14 A. Silbiger: ‘Passacaglia and Ciaccona: Genre Pairing and Ambiguity from Frescobaldi to Couperin’, Journal of Seventeenth-Century Music, ii (1996), A. Silbiger: ‘From Madrigal to Toccata: Frescobaldi and the Seconda Prattica’, Critica musica: Essays in Honor of Paul Brainard, ed. J. Knowles (Amsterdam, 1996), 403–28 J.W. Hill: Roman Monody, Cantata, and Opera from the Circles Around Cardinal Montalto (Oxford, 1997) C. Annibaldi: ‘Palestrina and Frescobaldi: Discovering a Missing Link’, ML, lxxvii (1998), 329–45 D. Schulenberg: ‘Some Problems of Text, Attribution, and Performance in Early Italian Baroque Keyboard Music’, Journal of Seventeenth-Century Music, iv (1998), D. 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