Gulf War Air Power Survey
Figure 31 Tactical Airlift Forces Beddown Locations
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- Figure 32 Airlift Organization, Bases, and Units
- Figure 33 Camel and Star Routes
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- Figure 35 Principal
Figure 31 Tactical Airlift Forces Beddown Locations 31
Table 11 Airlift Forces Beddown322
C-5s, C-141s, and Civil Reserve Air Fleet (CRAF) aircraft flew between the United States and the AOR but remained under the control of U.S. Transportation Command (USTRANSCOM). C-130s deployed as partial units to the AOR,323 and operational control was passed to the theater commander-in-chief (CINC), who operated them within the theater through his air component commander, the commander of CENTAF. The CENTAF commander in turn, delegated command of the C-130 force to the Commander, Airlift Forces (COMALF). The COMALF, a Military Airlift Command (MAC) Brigadier General, exercised command and control of the intratheater airlift forces. He worked for Lieutenant General Charles A. Horner, Commander of CENTAF, who was also the Joint Force Air Component Commander under CENTCOM. He provided command and control of airlift forces through the ALCC; he also managed the aerial ports, the air evacuation (air evac) system, and CENTAF combat control teams.324 The COMALF and his staff were in place shortly after General Horner and his CENTAF staff arrived in theater from Shaw AFB, South Carolina. COMALF personnel, who are MAC assigned, came from all MAC units. For example, Brigadier General Buckingham, the first COMALF for Desert Shield, was the 21st Air Force Vice Commander; his successor, Brigadier General E. Tenoso, was the 22d Air Force Vice Commander. The COMALF and CENTAF staffs worked closely together to coordinate schedules, validate airlift requests, allocate airlift assets, and improve the operational suitability of theater airfields.325 By the end of September 1990, personnel deployed to the AOR represented virtually every MAC career specialty. Unit cohesion and discipline were becoming problems for the COMALF because MAC-sourced commanders did not have administrative or disciplinary control over personnel deployed from other MAC units in the United States to augment their units in the AOR. MAC's policy of deploying personnel by Unit Type Code326 rather than by organizational unit was one cause of the problem. Also, the relatively few MAC commanders deployed to the Middle East were not commanding the officers and enlisted personnel they had commanded in the states. The absence of MAC units and commanders meant that disciplinary infractions committed by MAC personnel in the AOR could not be adjudicated under the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) without direct referrals to appropriate organizational commanders in the continental United States. Similarly, nonjudicial punishment, an administrative action for minor infractions of regulations, could not be implemented by the operational commander in the AOR. The resulting delays in judicial action and in nonjudicial punishment action disturbed the organizational integrity of the units and degraded morale. The situation was unacceptable to Gen Horner, Commander of CENTCOM's tactical air forces. He wanted disciplinary infractions resolved in theater. The Commander-in-Chief MAC (CINCMAC) approved activation of a MAC provisional organizational structure placing all MAC-sourced personnel under the administrative and disciplinary authority of MAC commanders in the AOR. The Air Force Reserve (AFRES) and Air National Guard (ANG) commanders concurred in this new organizational structure.327 (Figure 32 depicts the CENTAF airlift provisional wing structure.) Although the theater airfields were large, the infrastructure was not equipped to support the massive influx of people and equipment. Part of the COMALF's job was to manage the aerial ports and ensure the rapid throughput of cargo and people. The ramps filled up quickly. Fuel became a limiting factor. Materiel handling equipment (MHE) was sometimes not sufficient to download the arriving aircraft quickly.328 In addition, vehicles Figure 32 Airlift Organization, Bases, and Units329 32
NOTE: On 23 January 1991, the 1610 Airlift Division (Provisional) (ALD[P]) formed the 1675 Tactical Airlift Wing (Provisional) (TAW[P]), later designated the 1690 TAW(P) at King Fahd airbase, a Forward Operating Location (FOL). The wing was made up of C-130s from Thumrait and supported by C-130s from the 1630 TAW(P) Al Ain (see Table 11). These aircraft were the first to be used in airlifting the XVIII Corps and U.S. Marine Corps, Central Command (MARCENT) forces into their tactical assembly areas after the air campaign started.330 parked in the sun for long periods were prone to blown seals and gaskets as a result of heat deterioration. Constantly blowing sand and dust added to maintenance problems.331 One of the initial challenges was sorting out the hundreds of pallets that the C‑141s, C‑5s, and CRAF 747s left on the ramp. At first, some of the cargo was marked simply “Desert Shield,” with nothing to identify the Service or the unit that the cargo was intended for. Many of the cargo pallets arrived with only one identifying transportation control number (TCN) showing and with the primary APOD as the final destination. In fact, pallets often contained cargo loaded for multiple destinations within the theater; they had to be broken down and their cargos resorted to coincide with the intended destinations. The resulting workload significantly slowed down the efficiency of the terminal cargo transfer operation. Therefore, it was necessary to control the flow into certain bases to prevent gridlock on the ramps and in the aerial ports.332 Another problem caused by the lack of in-transit cargo visibility was frustration on the part of units waiting for the cargo, whether it be nonunit cargo or resupply parts ordered to support the units' combat capability. As a result, some parts were double ordered, and priorities on some items were overinflated.333 Finally, CENTCOM changed the supply stockage level of food and munitions desired from thirty days to sixty days. This action significantly increased airlift and sealift cargo requirements, and the cargo problem at the ports continued throughout Desert Shield and Desert Storm.334 The Saudis had not anticipated the large supplies of fuel required by Coalition forces and the large numbers of aircraft that would be flying daily in their air traffic control system. Thus, their refueling capability and their air traffic control system were inadequate. To solve these problems, CENTAF deployed R-9 refuelers into some bases (for example, King Fahd and King Khalid airfields) and negotiated with the Saudis to procure more fuel. Also, CENTAF deployed air traffic control assets into the AOR to control the arriving air forces.335 Another problem was lack of sufficient APODs for the reception of forces. Initially, Dhahran and Riyadh received forces; in mid-August, Jubail was made available. In September, CENTAF negotiated with the Saudis to allow King Fahd and King Khalid airfields to receive forces and cargo. This action was necessary to alleviate some of the congestion at Dhahran and Riyadh. However, it entailed considerable effort on the part of the major commands supporting the forces. For example, MAC had to send additional Airlift Control Element (ALCE) and support personnel to facilitate the throughput of cargo and passengers. Tactical Air Command (TAC) and Strategic Air Command (SAC), on the other hand, had the responsibility for air base support at King Fahd and King Khalid airfields, respectively. However, MAC, through TRANSCOM, was not able to secure an additional recovery and staging base in the immediate AOR for the strategic airlifters.336 A major priority item was an intratheater airlift system; immediately after it was set up, both frequency and requirements channels were established. The frequency channels ran on a given schedule, so the users knew when airlift was available. The channels were called Stars and Camels; Star missions hauled people and Camel missions flew mostly cargo. Figure 33 depicts typical routes providing airlift for Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines, and Coalition forces.337 In addition to moving personnel, Camel Star, the joint intratheater airlift operation, had as its primary mission moving mail and time-sensitive information between numerous operating bases on the Arabian peninsula. The Camel Express missions providing daily cargo service throughout the theater of operations were planned so that the movement of cargo Figure 33 Camel and Star Routes 33
In addition, some requirements channels responded specifically to user periodic needs. Because airlift was in great demand, a priority system was followed. A user's request was first validated by his unit and service validator and then forwarded to CENTCOM for prioritization. Specifically, the CENTCOM/J4, through the Joint Movement Control Center (JMCC), prioritized requirements. By matching requirements with C‑130 capability, the JMCC was able to meet top priority requirements. When the JMCC had decided which missions were to be flown, it passed the information to CENTAF, which combined airlift missions into the daily air tasking order (ATO) along with fighter, bomber, and tanker sorties. That tasking was then passed to the ALCC for further tasking to the units.341 Approximately thirty-three percent of the C-130 fleet was deployed, and during Desert Shield, intratheater airlift moved 142,000 short tons of cargo and 134,000 passengers, thus satisfying over 3,500 airlift requests from units in the AOR.342 During Desert Storm, over 21,000 hours and 13,000 sorties were flown, and a total of 159,000 short tons and 184,000 passengers were deployed. Sortie rates could have been higher, but the average flying time from Thumrait to Riyadh was three hours and fifteen minutes, and from Riyadh to Tabuk, five hours. These flying times made achieving more than one sortie per aircraft difficult in a given crew day. Utilization rates for the C-130 fleet averaged 3.71 hours for Desert Shield and 3.42 for Desert Storm.343 During the September‑December period, COMALF concentrated on opening up new bases such as King Khalid Military City, where KC-135s and EC-135s were to be bedded down, and Al Kharj, where F-15s, F-16s, and additional C-130s were to be bedded down. Al Kharj was a bare base, with no fuel, billeting, communications, or lights.344 CENTAF requested C-5 support to move outsize cargo for the F-15E-equipped 4th TFW, which was moving from Thumrait to Al Kharj. Although the request was not approved by TRANSCOM, C-130s flew 147 missions and moved 1,270 tons of cargo and 598 passengers in support of the move.345 As the force continued to build, support systems became the limiting factor. Basics such as cots, tents, and latrines were in short supply. Acquiring fuel and a fuel distribution system were paramount. Bladders were installed on the ground and filled as rapidly as possible. Also, MHE and support equipment was brought in as fast as the airlift priority system allowed.346 Even after the MHE equipment was in place, significant effort was needed to keep it operating. For example, of the ten 25K loaders that were in place at Dhahran, five were out of commission in September 1990. CENTAF was not able to get the MHE equipment fixed at the major APODs, so MAC sent spares and technicians to repair them. MHE reliability was a continuing problem throughout the theater and had to be aggressively managed.347 During the war, the C-130 played a vital role in resupplying forward Army logistics bases and Air Force FOLs. For example, they delivered approximately 600,000 gallons of fuel to these bases. Also, C‑130s delivered critical munitions and cargo to forward forces. Landing on narrow strips of road in northern Saudi Arabia and southern Iraq, the C‑130s ran daily shuttle missions between staging areas and the forward logistics bases. (Figure 34 presents an example of such activity.) Figure 34 Theater Main Supply Routes and Logistics Bases 34
The Army assisted in resupplying its forces by flying five C-23B Sherpa transport aircraft over 250,000 miles during Desert Shield and Desert Storm. These small turboprop aircraft airlifted critical Army combat weapon system repair parts from Abu Dhabi, Dhahran, and King Khalid Military City to forward locations in northern Saudi Arabia. They flew over 1,400 hours and airlifted 800,000 pounds of Army cargo and 400 passengers. However, they were limited to operating from improved runways.348 The Navy and Marine Corps operated their own intratheater airlift to provide service-unique support within the theater. With twenty-five C‑130s (five Navy, twenty Marine Corps) and various helicopters, the Navy and Marines linked with the principle MAC supply APODs to move critically required assets to forward deployed forces and to carrier on-board delivery and vertical on-board delivery pick-up points for shipboard delivery. Pick-up points were in Bahrain, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, and Hurghada, Egypt.349 Figure 35 depicts the principal United States Navy Central Command (USNAVCENT) logistics bases. The replenishment and maintenance effort supported by the Navy and Marine “logistics air force” kept six battle groups on-station and ready throughout Desert Shield and Desert Storm.350 In addition to the logistics support mentioned above, the U.S. C‑130 force supported the sustainment requirements of the Marines during Desert Shield and Desert Storm through early March 1991 by flying 351 missions to deliver 1,076.7 short tons of cargo, 1,071 pallets, and 616 passengers. The CENTAF JMCC allocated the Marine Corps thirty-five missions a day during the ground war, but only an average of five to six sorties were flown. The reasons given for this limited use of air support are varied, but prime considerations were the expeditionary nature of the airfields and the displacement of the combat service support areas (CSSAs). For example, when the forward CSSA moved from Mishab to Kabrit and then to Khanjar, flight operations were halted until expeditionary airfields were constructed and certified for use. Each of the moves caused C-130 air cargo movement to cease for five to nine days while the process of construction and certification was accomplished. Even after certification, the thresholds of the airfields at Kabrit and Khanjar eroded after several C-130 landings and had to be regraded and rerolled. The refurbishing caused a halt in C-130 operations varying from six to thirty-six hours. The Marine commanders deemed ground transportation as more reliable because of weather factors, the constant movement of units, the reliability of the Logistics Vehicle System (LVS), and the amount of cargo it could carry in a tandem tow configuration. For these reasons, the use of air assets for the movement of air cargo was underutilized.351 Figure 35 Principal NAVCENT Logistics Bases 35
Since all of the C-130 flying during the deployment phase was airland353 and because most of the bases had wide, 10,000 ft runways, the COMALF was concerned that the crews would lose their tactical proficiency: i.e., short runway takeoffs and landings, airdrops, formation flying, and low-altitude flying and navigation. Consequently, COMALF initiated a rigorous training program that included short-dirt-strip takeoffs and landings, low-level navigation training routes, and equipment drops on improvised drop zones.354 Integration is always important, and the C-130s practiced with fighters, tankers, helicopters, Coalition aircraft, the E-3 Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS), and the EC-130E Airborne Battlefield Command and Control Center (ABCCC) to perfect operational procedures. Airspace control with a concern for the potential threat of a midair collision constituted one of the greatest challenges for the COMALF and CENTAF operational staffs. In the long run, safe airspace control turned out to be one of many major accomplishments by the CENTAF staff. New airdrop procedures were devised. Water was obviously going to be important. However, the large rubber bladders that, in the past, were used to air drop water were no longer in the inventory. Since bottled water was readily available, the C-130 crews practiced until they were able to air drop without breaking the bottles. Fuel would play an important part in a mobile battlefield, so bladders brought into the AOR could be carried in the C‑130s. The C-130 crews practiced transferring fuel to ground units under austere desert conditions. Under emergency situations, fuel could have been air dropped to units in fifty-five gallon drums.355 Tactical airlift had its most rewarding test after the air war started. To prevent the Iraqis from shifting their forces, General Schwarzkopf directed that both XVIII Corps and VII Corps remain in their base camps until after the air war started and Iraq's ability to detect CENTCOM's movements had been degraded. As a result, after the air campaign started, tactical airlift forces were called on to airlift the entire XVIII Airborne Corps from King Fahd and nearby bases to Rafha, a distance of over 400 miles. The original plan called for seventy-two aircraft, with one aircraft landing at Rafha every ten minutes, twenty-four hours a day for fourteen daysa flow of over 2,000 sorties. In actuality, the flow into Rafha averaged one landing every seven minutes for the first thirteen days of the move; 14,000 personnel and over 9,000 tons of equipment were transported. The C-130 fleet utilization rate for this period was 8.0twice the planned wartime rate. After the XVIII Airborne Corps was closed,356 the relocation allowed the Corps to participate in what General Schwarzkopf called the “Hail Mary Pass” when the XVIII Airborne Corps drove north to the Euphrates River and then east to encircle the Iraqi Republican Guard. After closing the XVIII Airborne Corps, C-130 airflow was turned to building up logistic bases by hauling fuel, food, water, parts and supplies, and ammunition to places like “Log Base Charlie,” which was just a strip beside a highway adjacent to the Trans-Arabian oil pipeline in the vicinity of Rafha.357 About the same time, Lieutenant General Boomer, Commander of Marine Forces, decided that because of the Iraqi defenses in Kuwait, the Second Marine Division should be shifted to the northwest to penetrate Kuwait “at the bend in the elbow.”358 The C-130 force accomplished the shift with approximately 500 sorties from Kabrit to Khanjar.359 [Figure 36 shows the Kabrit and LZ 83 (Khanjar) areas and their positions relative to the Trans-Arabian pipeline.] Once the ground war started, a new factor for the U.S. C-130 force was addedairdrop. The first major call was for the C-130s to resupply VII Corps with ammunition. Because of bad weather, supply trucks had become mired in the mud, requiring an emergency resupply by air. The second and final major airdrop was to the 101st Division on patrol along the Euphrates River. The division had out run its supply lines, so the C‑130s air dropped one hundred tons of food and water to it. Because the war lasted only one-hundred hours, over ninety percent of the C-130 air drops, however, were for water and MREs. The purpose, of course, was to feed the unexpectedly large number of Iraqi POWs.360 36
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