The second period (1870 - 1916)

These scientists tried to describe language phenomenon according to 2 different principles:

1. 
   according to the linguistic analogy
   
2. 
   according to the inner reconstruction
   

The 2^nd trend of school was the attention to psychologic processed of a communicative situation. The scholars representing both trends in linguistics tried to investigate related and non-related languages irrespective of the stage of their development. They didn’t speak about the language age such as Sunscrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic and German. These languages were studied as if they belonged to one and the same age but now we know that some of languages are older, some of them are rather new languages.

The main representative of this school was Hanry Paul. His main book appeared in 1880. It was called “The principles of the history of language”. In this work he spoke about necessity to pay attention to the associations in the language. The associations in the language may appear dew to semantic changes in words, that is why cases of metaphor and metonymy, examples of hyperbola and litotes (литота) must be examined on the base of associations. These associations may show how a person thinks when he is using stylistic devises. Some other semantic changes for example: the widening and narrowing of the meaning may be described on the basis of the logical principle. In general Young Grammarian School tried not only to uncover linguistic laws but to study also fairy-tales, proverbs and other examples of folk texts.

In 1877 Karl Verner formulated an additional law which can explain some cases of correspondences which were not described by the Grimm’s law. K. V. found out that there can be changes in consonants in old Germanic languages which depended upon the stress of the word. This law is concerned with the shift of stress which happened ≈ 3d century BC. In Sanskrit the stress like in Greek is on the 2^nd syllable, Germanic languages – 1^st syllable is stressed.

Greek – patér German – Váter English – fæder

B. G. discovered that particular language in Turkey where Ferdinand de Saussure described the language sounds.

E. K. described the peculiarities of some dead Greek languages. During this very period new non-comparative theories were proclaimed. One of these theories is called the Nostratic theory (настротическая). According to it languages form different linguistic families, which are included into one bigger family.

The other theory that appeared described the place…with the old Indo-European lived. This theory was introduced by Gankrilidze and Ivanov.

1. 
   Historical Comparative Linguistics
   

2. 
   Comparative Typological theories, which studied the types of language structures irrespective of historical and cultural correspondences of Indo-European languages. To this particular belong the Young Grammarian School and some mentioned scholars: Egi Kurilovich, Boris Grosny.
   
3. 
   It is associated with theoretical linguistics which forms the philosophy of language and describes general properties of languages in descriptive and comparative linguistics. These general properties of varies languages were formulated by Вильгельм фон Гумбольдт. He thought that languages have to be described as cases of general linguistics. That is why it is very important to study human speech and communication and even to spek about the ability of human being to construct phrases and sentences. Вильгельм фон Гумбольдт thought that human language activity is associated with his nature and ability to interact.
   

The last trend in linguistics influenced greately the scholars of the end of the 19^th and the beginning of the 20^th century. One of the most beneficial changes of the end of the 19^th century was a new attitude to the study of living human speech. The greatest stress way laid on phonetics and on the psychology of the language.

At the end of the 19^th century we observe the rise of the Descriptive Linguistics. This kind of linguistics were opposed to Comparative studies, Descriptive Linguistics became the source of some major developments in contemporary linguistics. Besides that, descriptive analysis of the language made possible the appearance of some synchronic studies.

The work of the Young Grammarian school led directly to some main theories in language studies, that appeared in the 20^th century. Among the pioneers of the Descriptive Linguistics we are to mention the British scientists Henry Sweet. He laid the foundations of all general theories which could describe phonetics on one hand and the history of the language. He was the first grammarian who introduced the grammar of the English language based on the descriptive analysis. According to him the principles of Descriptive Linguistics differed greatly from the principles of the historical comparative studies. He introduced and applied the spelling reform at the description of the language. He introduced the system of transcriptions applicable to any phonetic system of the language. That system we are using now in phonetics and phonology was described by him. He spoke about the case of the phoneme, phonological environment of the investigated sounds, he also made possible to describe all linguistic phenomena in the English grammar.

Time

18 century Шекспир

In this case all notions in the language are treated diachronically. These 2 dimensions of the language may possible to speak about synchronic and diachronic linguistics.

2) He distinguished between two main notions of a speaker langue and parole those actual phenomena which are connected with utterances and speech. Langue and parole have become international terms in structural linguistics. They categorized language activity of a human being. He thought that language is connected with the society and speech is associated with a particular individual. A linguist has to investigate what can happen in the language and in this case he is to study the lexicon, grammar, phonetics. Each of these language levels represents their own peculiarities, each of them can be regarded as a separate system and a language is a very complicated system which may include everything. Main units of each levels (phonemes, morphemes, lexemes) and the relations between them.

3) He examined the interrelations between 2 main structures of the language. They are called synthegmatic relations and paradigmatic relations. S. relations are observed in a sentence when all the words are put in line. Ex.: I read a book. (pronoun + verb + noun) We may add smth else. P. relations describes system of contrasted elements in different categories. We can change the example as we like: instead of “I” we can put “he”, “she”, “they”; instead of “read” we can put “run”, “write” and so on. Here we are putting word according to our communicative aims and associations which may appear in our mind. This statement on the structural approach to language underlies principles of modern linguistics. This idea justifies his idea that linguistics is an independent science and subject of study. Linguistics should be discussed as a discipline which must represent inner peculiarities of a language characterized by phonetical, morphological and lexemic levels. Фердинанд де Соссюр in his course of general linguistics spoke also about signs and their peculiarities. He thought that it is necessary to investigate the form of the word, the concept of the word and to show how they are connected with things in reality. This very idea was based on achievements of the German philosopher and mathematician Gotlap Frege.

thing

form concept
Nowadays all these connections are known as a semantic triangle which can describe 2 different sides of a word. The form of a word is associated with the way we pronounce the word, with the way we spell the word. The concept of a word introduces our thoughts about a particular object in the surrounded reality. Ex.: cat is a domestic animal, 4 legs, one head and so on, we get to know some particular features that helps to distinguish it from a dog or other animals. The semantic triangle allowed to show properties of any sign beside that a language is a semiotic system. Besides the language there are many semiotic systems, surrounding a human being. Фердинанд де Соссюр in his course spoke about a separate study of semiological systems. He called the study – semiology.
14. Main antinomies of the "Course on General Linguistics" by F. de Saussure.
Fds’s book “A course on General Linguistics” appeared in 1916. He read lectures, which impressed his students so greatly, that they decided to reconstruct all lectures. His notes & notes of his students are used.

All FdS’s ideas may be put under 3 main heads:

1. 
   He formalized & made explicit 2 main dimensions in the language studies: Synchrony (s) and Diachrony(d). S is treated as a self-contained system of communication at any particular time. He described S as one of the axes. The other axe is represented in D. it shows those changes which can appear when we compare 2 different levels of the language (16^th century & 20^th century. In this case all notions in the language are treated diachronically). These 2 dimensions of language made possible to speak about Synchronic & Diachronic Linguistics.
   
2. 
   FdS distinguished between 2 main notions:
   

• 
  langue (L) (language competence of a speaker)
  
• 
  parole (P) (phenomena which are connected with utterances & speech)
  

FdS thought that language is connected with the society & speech is associated with a particular individual. A linguist has to investigate what can happen in the language (lexicon, grammar, phonetics). Each of the language units represented their own peculiarities each of them can be regarded a separate system & a language is a very complicated system which may include everything: main units of each level (phonemes, morphemes, lexemes) & the relations between them.

3. 
   FdS examined the interrelations between 2 main structures of the language:
   

• 
  syntagmatic relations
  
• 
  paradigmatic relations
  

I read a book . (pronoun + verb + noun)We may add smth else.

FdS spoke about the connection between 3 different sides of a linguistic sign. According to him 1 of the sides which is connected with phonological form was called a sign. The other side of the triangle was called a signifier ( or a concept which exists in the speaker’s or listener’s mind). The relationship between a phonological form & a concept is showed by dotted line & it usually concerns linguistics. But now the sign is not the unity of the phonological form & a grammar form. It’s a unity between the outer side of a unit & inner side of it, represented by the phonological & grammar forms related to a concept.

1. 
   Copenhagen linguistic school
   
2. 
   The Prague linguistic school
   
3. 
   American school of linguistics.
   

1. 
   a noun
   
2. 
   number
   
3. 
   gender
   
4. 
   case
   
5. 
   article
   

1. 
   animal
   
2. 
   domestic animal
   
3. 
   dog family
   
4. 
   barking)
   

Represented by Czech & Russian scholars (Матезиус, Трубецкой, Якобсон).

Трубецкой was a professor in Vienna & published works in different spheres of linguistics but his main book “ Foundations of Phonology”(1938) described the principles of the phonological analysis elaborated in PLS. Трубецкой & PLS applied theory of FdS to the elaboration of the phoneme concept. He paid attention to main notions introduced by FdS – langue & parole. He thinks that to the level of the language a phoneme may belong that is why he tried to study languages as systems of interrelated elements & he treated a phoneme as a separate class of sounds & as a complex phonological unit, this unit is realized in the sounds of speech. The relations between units of the phonological level have become fundamental to the PL theory. Each phoneme was regarded as a linguistic entity, which may be shown as consisting of common (universal) features & distinctive properties or markers.

(Ex: [p]/[b]

• 
  consonants
  
• 
  bilabial
  
• 
  not palatalized
  
• 
  voiced/ voiceless)
  

Трубецкой thought that the main notion for the description of phonemes is opposition (p vs b). the 2^nd term is useful for description of opposition both in Eng & in Ru

Лук – луг (г – is neutral & only one plosive can occur) marked opposition.

Трубецкой introduced the term “archiphoneme” to speak about some universal features on the level of phonology. The term “phoneme” was carefully investigated by a PLS & afterwards the phonological analysis was applied to features connected with syllables. This analysis is rather fruitful for the prosodic description of the language. It’s possible to characterize the stress, the length, the pitch +intonation & other phenomena on the level of speech. This kind of analysis also helped to describe the syntagmatic study & functions of certain sound units in communication.

It’s represented by Leonard Bloomfield & his book “Language” (1933). His approach was scientific, mechanistic & formal interpretation of language. He paid more attention to the phonological level & the morphemic level. He introduced his own theory for the description of morphemes & phonemes. His analysis is now known as the “Immediate Constituance Theory”.

Poor John / ran away

May be analyzed by the binary principe

1. 
   1. Poor John
   

(uc)

Ultimate Constituance(uc)

(can’t be divided further)
c) away

a (uc) way (uc)

The basic units in the language study:

• 
  sentence
  
• 
  phrase (construction) main levels in American Linguistics
  
• 
  morpheme
  
• 
  phoneme