Introduction Background
Discussion and conclusions
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Chapter Six
Discussion and conclusionsDiscussionSAR interferometry provides crucial clues about the geophysical mechanism underlying the source of deformation by measuring precise deformations of the Earth's surface. Multiple-aperture interferometry (MAI) has previously been developed to measure along-track displacement. With the MAI method, it has been possible to improve the measurement of a long-track displacement significantly. The LOS method is limited in that it can only measure displacements in 1-D along the radar LOS. The coseismic deformation inversion demonstrates unequivocally that the 2017 Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake did not penetrate the surface. We combined the measurements of LOS and along-track data to obtain the 3D surface displacements. The region's southwest has a high coseismic surface deformation zone close to Qasr-e Shirin. (Figure 4.1 a and 4.2 a). Interferograms reveal linear features roughly parallel to surface fold expressions. The largest coseismic offset in the LOS direction of the ascending track in ALOS-2 and sentinel is over 6 cm. After a month following the mainshock, cumulative surface creep (along the LOS direction of the ascending satellite sentinel across these secondary faults exceeded 3 cm. The 2017 Sarpol -Zahab earthquake serves as a reminder of the significance of basement faults in allowing for crustal shortening across the Zagros. Because of the arid environment and sparse vegetation in the epicenter area, Sentinel1 InSAR observations from two different look directions captured the coseismic deformation of the 2017 Sarpol Zahab earthquake, allowing us to tightly constrain the fault geometry and slip distribution of the 2017 Sarpol Zahab earthquake. The preferred slip model shows a rake angle of 135°, indicating that the thrust slip component is as large as the left lateral strike-slip component. The research reveals that the 2017 Sarpol-e Zahab event ruptured a nearly north-south trending plane (strike = 337°) that gently dips to the east (dip angle = 11°), agreeing with the majority of surface expressions (i.e., faults and folds) in this region. The majority of the seismic moment release is concentrated between 15 and 21 km below the boundary between the Phanerozoic sedimentary cover and the underlying Proterozoic basement, and the coseismic rupture is characterized by nearly equal amounts of thrust and dextral motion distributed on a 35 km long and 15 km wide fault plane. .. The 2017 Sarpol-e Zahab rupture occurred along a low-angle thrust fault with a nearly northwest-southeast orientation, agreeing with the area's surface expressions of the fault and fold. The major moment release during the 2017 Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake was concentrated in a depth range between 10 and 20 km, far below the sediment-basement cover at 6–15 km in the area, according to the slip model. Despite the relatively low dip angle (8.5–11°), the slip model is characterized by nearly equal amounts of thrust and dextral slip. Our model represents a relatively straightforward and compact rupture area. However, the study acknowledges that the extent of smoothing and adjustment in the inversion may affect the precise slip distribution. The rake of slip in the model by Barnhart et al. (2018) is noticeably lower than our models. The published source models closely agree with our 2017 Mw 7.3 Sarpol Zahab earthquake results. It is probably caused by the relatively simple rupture geometry and good surface deformation measurement coverage. According to these observations, the crystalline basement in the Zagros shortens mostly through aseismic fault creep accompanied by micro-seismicity or lower basement ductile deformation to the North (Nissen et al., 2011). The 2017 Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake's basement-involved rupture highlights the potential seismic hazard from basement faults along the Zagros, especially given that the MFF has a total length of more than 1,000 km (Berberian, 1995). This basement-involved rupture suggests that some of the elastic strain accumulation and release along the Zagros resides in the basement (Berberian, 1995). Depending on modeling the coseismic deformation of several moderate-sized earthquakes along the Zagros, most moderate-to-large earthquake ruptures are believed to be restricted to the middle to lower sedimentary cover. At the same time, background micro-seismicity and aftershocks of those events are most likely to occur in the basement (Nissen et al., 2014; Nissen et al., 2011). We utilized the Landsat 8 OLI image, which has undergone radiometric and atmospheric corrections, to determine lithological classification and structural geology. We obtained the color combination of R G and B bands 5 4 7 and 7 5 2 (Figure 5.1 and 5.9). The sense of fault movement is also interpretable based on regional structural regimes. However, the Landsat 8 image is helpful for preliminary and structural interpretation. Three families dominate the distribution of lineaments in this area. The direction of the essential family varies between NW-SE, NE-SW, E-W, and N-S, which is consistent with the general direction of the major faults. The structure of the first directional group is associated with the latest Neoproterozoic and earliest Cambrian (550–540 Ma). These faults have displaced Pan-African structures within the Arabian Shield to the northeast. The Recent Main Fault (MRF) and other blind faults that extend from northwest to southeast are part of the Zagros Orogen (NW-SE). The NE-SW to E-W oriented group, formed during the Permian and Triassic opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean, forms NE-SW trending transfer/transformation faults. The third group comprises structures formed during the Pan-African orogen (670-570 Ma). Examples of these faults are ZFTBs that run in an N-S direction. Based on the correlation of our remote sensing results, we can see that all data sets provide similar or identical results. We used geologic maps of major faults in the target region to confirm our results. In addition, we rely on two other aspects that play a role in validating these conclusions. The first is the lithologic map; the second is the comparison of the lineaments with the slope map. We can see the lineaments are concentrated in the areas composed of competent rocks. In contrast, the lineaments become weaker in the less complex and brittle formations. In the NW-SE trending surface anticlines, which form “whaleback” limestones that are mostly resistant, there is a conspicuous concentration of lineaments in this area. In the north, the Oligocene and Miocene sandstones and conglomerates of Agha Jari and Bakhtyari contain a high concentration of lineaments. In contrast, the faintly recognizable geological lineaments are found in the friable Cretaceous to Quaternary formations (silts, sandstones, marls, and boulders) (see Figure 5.7). The morphology and geomorphology of the land are most likely caused by tectonic processes leading to the dips and depressions created by the movement of faults. This becomes clear by comparing the lineaments with the slope maps, one of the validations of lineaments. The slope maps were created from the digital terrain module (Figure 5.8) with the lineaments from the PCA1, the panchromatic band, and the STRM. The overlay shows that most of the lineaments are concentrated in areas with steep slopes and substantial variations in topographic profile, especially in the southwest (Sarpol Zahab), but also in the northeastern part, while the areas with low slopes (the central area) show a decrease in lineaments. The tectonic stress field and the collision dynamics between the Arabian and Eurasian plates most likely control this type of fault motion (Zoback, 1992). According to the world stress map, the epicenter is situated in a region with the highest horizontal strike-slip and thrust faulting stress (Zoback, 1992). The Arabian plate subducts beneath the Eurasian plate, creating the Zagros Mountains. Based on a GPS station (ILAM) close to the epicenter, the northern part of the Arabian plate is rotating counterclockwise towards the NNW at a rate of 18 mm/year concerning a fixed Eurasian plate (Reilinger et al., 2006). An oblique collision of the Eurasian and Arabian plates near the Iraq-Iran border prefers slip partitioning and fault movements. A seismic hazard assessment must consider a large earthquake's recurrence time. The 2017 event's large-slip asperity is situated in an area with a relatively high seismic strain rate (Figure 3.1). Coseismic slip at moderate depths symbolizes the release of elastic strain that builds up in the middle crust during the seismic phase. According to quantitative research of over a century's historical earthquakes in the NW of Zagros, the seismic strain rate near the 2017 epicenter is relatively low (~4 × 10−9 year−1) (Raeesi et al., 2017). the area surrounding the 2017 epicenter has a low seismicity rate, a high b-value, and a long mean return period of large events, unlike the SE Zagros (Mousavi and Ebbing, 2018). It indicates that the fault system that caused the NW Zagros earthquake is mature enough to cause a large earthquake. The largest seismic event in history nearer to the 2017 epicenter is unknown. According to the earthquake catalogs currently in use, very few M > 5 earthquakes have been recorded within a 50 km radius of the 2017 epicenter since 1900 (USGS-NEIC and Iranian Seismological Center). The recurrence time of the same causative fault segment for an Mw 7 event ranges from 600 to 1700 years, assuming that the 2017 event released all of the accumulated elastic strain on the fault segment and a convergence rate of 4 2 mm/yr (Vernant et al., 2004). The M w 7.3 Sarpol-Zahab earthquake ruptured, causing an oblique (dextral thrust) fault with gentle dipping (11 ͦ) eastward under the northwestern Lurestan arc. The northwest boundary of the Lurestan arc and the up-dip edge of the 2017 rupture plane correspond (Figure 4). Over time, a topographic divergence of approximately ∼1 km would be created between the Kirkuk embayment adjacent and the arc due to repeated earthquakes on this fault. The reversal faults resulting in significant frontal escarpments in the Zagros SFB are the Mountain Front Fault (Berberian 1995; Figure 6.1a). For clarity, we will refer to the faulting associated with the Sarpol Zahab earthquake as the “Sarpol Zahab fault” (Figure 6.1b). It differs significantly from the Mountain Front Fault and the other faults in the other Zagros parts. The Mountain Front Fault has steeper fault planes (∼20-60◦) compared to the Sarpol Zahab fault (∼11◦), which is the first difference (Figures 6.1a and 6.1b Second, most earthquakes on the Mountain Front Fault had reverse processes, but the Sarpol Zahab earthquake had a SW-directed slip that was highly oblique to the local roughly N-S range front topography. Finally, the Mountain Front Fault uplifts from the basement into the lower to middle sedimentary cover, where shallow centroid depths are observed (Nissen et al., 2011), where it affects the evolution of major surface anticlines ( Berberian, 1995; Blanc et al., 2003). Consequently, the Mountain Front Fault in the Sarpol Zahab region had previously been mapped as a set of short, NW-striking segments that paralleled the regional direction of fold axes (Figures 2, 3, and 12a). As shown in Figure 6.1 b, the N-S Sarpol Zahab fault angles sharply with overlying folds, from which the fault must be detached. Following the Sarpol Zahab earthquake, Barnhart et al. (2018) observed an after slip near the up-dip limit of coseismic slip on a sub horizontal structure located at ∼10 to 14 km depth, it supports this interpretation. Figure (5.10): The image representations of basement-cored fault geometry in the western Lurestan arc display (a) the previous interpretation and (b) the new interpretation. Faults are colored with darker down-dip shading and slip vectors—which show the motion of the hanging wall to the footwall—and approximate dip values are labeled on them whenever possible based on focal mechanisms from earthquakes. (a) Previous interpretations by Hessami et al. (2001) and Sepehr and Cosgrove (2004), according to which a dextral "Khanaqin fault" divides the Lurestan arc from the Kirkuk embayment, and Berberian (1995), according to which the Zagros Foredeep Fault and Mountain Front Fault regulate frontal fold growth throughout the Lurestan arc. (b) Our new interpretations, according to which the oblique thrust/right lateral, around 15° east dipping Ezgeleh-Sarpolzahab fault, control the border between the Kirkuk embayment and Lurestan arc. It is possible that faulting and folding are unrelated because of the fault's high angle of trending to the fold axes that it overlies.. ConclusionsThe thesis describes seismotectonic and geological studies carried out in Sarpol-e Zahab. We used remote sensing techniques to study the Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake. The result supports the idea that applying 3D coseismic and coseismic inversion to the collective properties of fault and earthquake populations in terms of probabilities is an appropriate methodological tool. The research estimates of the coseismic displacements brought on by the 2017 Mw 7.3 Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake agree with earlier studies, e.g. (Barnhart et al., 2018; Feng et al., 2018; Nissen et al., 2019). The automated extraction of lineaments is considered a fundamental and valuable technique. This method of extracting lineaments provides useful insights into the region's tectonic history and geodynamics. We determined the PCA1 and panchromatic band, including the STRM. All of this data was processed in a specialized way to extract the most likely structural lineaments that comprise the study region. The automatic integration of remote sensing and the Geographic Information System in mapping structural lines enables an efficient and accurate definition of the lineaments. It speeds up the identification of fractured zones. This technique also generates length, density, and distribution frequency statistics. In addition, other studies, including hydrogeological studies, mining research, and so on, can benefit from this work as a reference. The Mw 7.3 Sarpol Zahab earthquake that occurred on November 12, 2017, involved an oblique (dextral-thrust) slide across a large, roughly (35*15) kilometer, slightly dipping (∼11ͦ) rupture plane located in the basement of the northwest Lurestan arc. The basement fault that caused the Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake is likely responsible for the 1 km elevation differential between the Lurestan arc and the Kirkuk embayment. It differs from parts of the Mountain Front Fault that create frontal escarpments elsewhere in the Zagros. It might be associated with a seismic interface underlying the central and southern Lurestan arc, and a major concern is whether the more extensive regional structure is also seismogenic. Even though the Sarpol Zahab fault might be a component of a larger structure that underlies much of the Lurestan arc and is imaged in receiver functions, it is unlikely that this structure is seismogenic everywhere because this would require moment release rates that are significantly higher than those are that have been historically or experimentally observed. However, this earthquake emphasizes the need for increased GPS coverage in the NW Zagros, which could aid in identifying the location of strain accumulation on a low-angle structure in the region. Acknowledgment PhDs are challenging, and a lot of work that is seldom seen goes into them. Remember that success is an iceberg for everyone reading this polished, finished version, especially for anyone still in the middle of their Ph.D. I want to use this occasion to express my gratitude to everyone who has supported me. Many thanks to my two professors, Wu and Chan, for all the new things they taught me, their unwavering patience, and for reading everything I emailed them. To Basheer and Dafalla, thank you for letting me do a good job and for your enthusiasm for this thesis. To all the students in the group who helped me in the meetings and Zhongshan Jiang, whose ability to solve any computer problem with a smile is unparalleled, and everyone in office 4225, it was a pleasure to work with them. I wish everyone success, and I give special thanks to Abobeker and Basheer, who helped me with almost everything I have done in this Ph.D. We are both worriers and perfectionists, but we both succeeded. Without you guys, I couldn't have done it; even if I could have, it wouldn't have been enjoyable; with heartfelt gratitude to my family, especially my parents, who have shown me unwavering love and support during my Ph.D. I also want to thank Sara. References Agard, P., J. Omrani, L. Jolivet & F. Mouthereau (2005) Convergence history across Zagros (Iran): constraints from collisional and earlier deformation. International journal of earth sciences, 94, 401-419. Al-Qayim, B., A. Omer & H. 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Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 97, 11703-11728. https://www.icasat.org/en/portfolio/iranian-seismological-center/ List of Publications Randa Ali, Xiyong Wu, Qiang Chen 1, Basheer A. Elubid , Dafalla S. Dafalla , Muhammad Kamran and Abdelmottaleb A. Aldoud, 3D Co-Seismic Surface Displacements Measured by DInSAR and MAI of the 2017 Sarpol Zahab Earthquake, Mw7.3, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , REMOTE SENSING. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19169831. (SCI)- Ranked as (A++). Download 0.84 Mb. Share with your friends:
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