Link to this article

Fourth, for certain pupils, notably some working-class and some ethnic minority students, effort and effortlessness are risky, which puts them in a very difficult posi- tion. Fifth, discourses that construct some pupils as naturally gifted can influence policy-making and the allocation of resources; the Gifted and Talented Programmes mentioned earlier are one example (see also Tsay and Banaji 2011). Sixth, the notion of effortless achievement is inextricably linked to conceptions of intelligence as nat- ural and non-malleable; from this viewpoint, effort is only for people who are defi- cient. Such views foster both fears of failure and fears of trying, both of which pose significant barriers to learning (cf. Hattie 2009).

Overall, the idea and the ideal of effortless achievement are seductive. We have demonstrated the attraction at different levels of education in two countries. Indeed, what is striking is the similarity between the Swedish and English data, both in terms of the strength and nature of the effortless achievement discourse, and in terms of who can, and cannot, be positioned as effortless achievers. Effortless achievement discourses tend to perpetuate and reinforce long-standing inequalities and need to be challenged. Dweck (2000) argues that we can begin to challenge the notion that effortless achievement is the pinnacle of accomplishment by praising effort and pro- cess, rather than product. While Dweck’s argument is strong and researchers have begun to demonstrate the positive effects of effort-praise in real-world contexts (e.g. Gunderson et al. 2013), challenging the desirability of effortless achievement will be difficult because of long-standing discourses about intelligence, and the benefits that some groups garner from perpetuating them.

Funding

Jackson’s work was supported by the Economic and Social Research Council [grant number RES-000-27-0041]. Nyström’s work was supported by The Faculty of Educational Research at Uppsala University, Sweden.

1. 
   Again, comparative research suggests that this is less obvious in Asian countries (Stables et al. 2014; Stevenson, Chen, and Lee 1993).
   
2. 
   Although in some cases, girls reinforce boys’ presentations as effortless achievers, for example, in Holford’s (2012) study, where some girls did their boyfriend’s homework.
   

Notes on contributors

Carolyn Jackson is a professor of Gender and Education in the Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University, UK where she is also co-director of the Centre for Social Justice and Well-being in Education. She has researched and published on numerous gender and education issues, including fear; constructions and performances of ‘laddish’ masculini- ties and femininities; and single-sex and mixed-sex learning environments. Her books include ‘Lads and Ladettes in School: Gender and a fear of failure’ and ‘Girls and Education 3–16’ (co-edited with Carrie Paechter and Emma Renold).
Anne-Sofie Nyström is a researcher at the Centre for Gender Research at Uppsala University, and also a senior lecturer at Mälardalen University in Sweden. Her research interests include educational inequality and feminist theory, with a particular focus on (young) men, masculinities and identity processes in peer groups in schools. She has published on mascu- linities; schooling and peer-group interaction; educational stratification; and ethical dilemmas in fieldwork.

References

Allan, A. 2010. “Picturing Success: Young Femininities and the (Im)Possibilities of Academic Achievement in Selective, Single-sex Education.” International Studies in Sociology of Education 20 (1): 39–54.

Archer, L. 2010. “The Impossibility of Minority Ethnic Educational ‘Success’: An Examination of the Discourses of Teachers and Pupils in British Schools.” In Equality, Participation and Inclusion 2: Diverse Contexts. 2nd ed, edited by J. Rix, M. Nind,

K. Sheehy, K. Simmons, J. Parry, and R. Kumrai, 232–250. London: Routledge. Ball, S. 2013. Foucault, Power and Education. London: Routledge.

Barnes, C. 2011. “A Discourse of Disparagement: Boys’ Talk about Girls in School.” Young

19 (1): 5–23.

Bourdieu, P. 1976. (originally published 1966). “The School as a Conservative Force: Scho- lastic and Cultural Inequalities.” In Schooling and Capitalism: A Sociological Reader, edited by R. Dale, G. Esland, and M. MacDonald, 110–117. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul in association with Open University Press.

Castles, E. E. 2012. Inventing Intelligence: How America Came to Worship IQ. Oxford: Praegar. Chitty, C. 2009. Eugenics, Race and Intelligence in Education. London: Continuum.

Christopher, A. N. and K. L. Zabel. 2011. “Protestant Work Ethic.” In The Encyclopedia of Peace Psychology. Wiley Online. doi:10.1002/9780470672532.wbepp222.

Clarricoates, K. 1980. “The Importance of Being Ernest … Emma … Tom … Jane. The Per- ception and Categorization of Gender Conformity and Deviation in Primary Schools.” In Schooling for Women’s Work, edited by R. Deem. London: Routledge.

Cohen, M. 1998. “‘A Habit of Healthy Idleness’: Boys’ Underachievement in Historical Perspective.” In Failing Boys? Issues in Gender and Achievement, edited by D. Epstein,

J. Elwood, V. Hey, and J. Maw, 19–34. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Covington, M. V. 1998. The Will to Learn: A Guide for Motivating Young People.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Covington, M. V. 2000. “Goal Theory, Motivation, and School Achievement: An Integrative Review.” Annual Review of Psychology 51: 171–200.

Dempster, S. 2007. “Degrees of Laddishness: Masculinities within the Student Experience of Higher Education.” PhD Thesis., Lancaster University.

Department for Education and Skills (DfES). 2005. Higher Standards, Better Schools for All: More Choice for Parents and Pupils. CM 6677. London: HMSO.

Dweck, C. S. 2000. Self-theories: Their Role in Motivation, Personality and Development.

Hove: Psychology Press.

Dweck, C. S. 2006. Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York: Random House. Epstein, D. 1998. “Real Boys Don’t Work: ‘Underachievement’, Masculinity, and the Harass-

ment of ‘Sissies’.” In Failing Boys? Issues in Gender and Achievement, edited by

D. Epstein, J. Elwood, V. Hey, and J. Maw, 96–108. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Fisher, H. 2014. “‘It Would Help If the Teacher Helps You a Bit More … instead of Going to the Brainiest Who Don’t Need a Lot of Help’: Exploring the Perspectives of Dissatis- fied Girls on the Periphery of Primary Classroom Life.” British Educational Research Journal 40 (1): 150–169.

Fletcher, R. B., and J. Hattie. 2011. Intelligence and Intelligence Testing. London: Routledge. Francis, B., P. Burke, and B. Read. 2014. “The Submergence and Re-emergence of Gender in Undergraduate Accounts of University Experience.” Gender and Education 26 (1):

1–17.

Francis, B., and C. Skelton. 2005. Reassessing Gender and Achievement. London: Routledge.

Francis, B., B. Read, L. Melling, and J. Robson. 2003. “University Lecturers’ Perceptions of Gender and Undergraduate Writing.” British Journal of Sociology of Education 24 (3): 357–373.

Gillborn, D. 2010. “Reform, Racism and the Centrality of Whiteness: Assessment, Ability and the ‘New Eugenics’.” Irish Educational Studies 29 (3): 231–252.

Gillborn, D., N. Rollock, C. Vincent, and S. J. Ball. 2012. “‘You Got a Pass, So What More Do You Want?’: Race, Class and Gender Intersections in the Educational Experiences of the Black Middle Class.” Race Ethnicity and Education 15 (1): 121–139.

Gunderson, E. A., S. J. Gripshover, C. Romero, C. S. Dweck, S. Goldin-Meadow, and

S. C. Levine. 2013. “Parent Praise to 1- to 3-Year-olds Predicts Children’s Motivational Frameworks 5 Years Later.” Child Development 84 (5): 1526–1541.

Hattie, J. 2009. Visible Learning: A Synthesis of over 800 Meta-analyses Relating to Achievement. London: Routledge.

Henderlong, J., and M. R. Lepper. 2002. “The Effects of Praise on Children’s Intrinsic Motivation: A Review and Synthesis.” Psychological Bulletin 128 (5): 774–795.

Hodgetts, K. 2008. “‘Underperformance’ or ‘Getting It Right’?” Constructions of Gender and Achievement in the Australian Inquiry into Boys’ Education, British Journal of Sociology of Education 29 (5): 465–477.

Holford, N. 2012. “Making Classed Sexualities: Investigating Gender, Power and Violence in Middle-class Teenagers’ Relationship Cultures.” DPhil, Cardiff University.

Holm, A.-S., and E. Öhrn. 2013. “‘Swotters’ and ‘Natural Talents’: A Study of Gender and Performance in Secondary School.” Paper Presented at the Gender and Education Association Conference, London, April.

Jackson, C. 2003. “Transitions into Higher Education: Gendered Implications for Academic Self-concept.” Oxford Review of Education 29 (3): 331–346.

Jackson, C. 2006. Lads and Ladettes in School: Gender and a Fear of Failure. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Jackson, C. 2010. “Demanding Time: Balancing School and Out-of-school Demands.” In

C. Paechter and E. Renold, 157–169. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Jackson, C., and S. Dempster. 2009. “‘I Sat Back on My Computer … with a Bottle of Whisky next to Me’: Constructing ‘Cool’ Masculinity through ‘Effortless’ Achievement in Secondary and Higher Education.” Journal of Gender Studies 18 (4): 341–356.

Jackson, C., S. Dempster, and L. Pollard. 2014. “‘They Just Don’t Seem to Really Care, They Think It’s Cool to Sit There and Talk’: ‘Laddism’ in University Teaching–learning Contexts.” Educational Review. doi:10.1080/00131911.2014.910178.

Jones, S., and D. Myhill. 2004a. “Seeing Things Differently: Teachers’ Constructions of Underachievement.” Gender and Education 16 (4): 531–546.

Jones, S., and D. Myhill. 2004b. “‘Troublesome Boys’ and ‘Compliant Girls’: Gender Identity and Perceptions of Achievement and Underachievement.” British Journal of Sociology of Education 25 (5): 547–561.

Jones, B. D., L. Rakes, and K. Landon. 2013. “Malawian Secondary Students’ Beliefs about Intelligence.” International Journal of Psychology 48 (5): 785–796.

Jonsson, R. 2007. Blatte Betyder Kompis: Om Maskulinitet Och Språk I En Högstadieskola [Blatte Means Friend: On Masculinity and Language in a Middle School]. diss., Stockholm: Ordfront.

Korp, H. 2011. “What Counts as Being Smart round Here? The Performance of Smartness and Masculinity in Vocational Upper Secondary Education.” Education, Citizenship and Social Justice 6 (1): 21–37.

Kurtz-Costes, B., R. J. McCall, C. R. Kinlaw, C. A. Wiesen, and M. H. Joyner. 2005. “What Does It Mean to Be Smart? The Development of Children’s Beliefs about Intelligence in Germany and the United States.” Applied Developmental Psychology 26: 217–233.

Lahelma, E. 2005. “School Grades and Other Resources: The ‘Failing Boys’ Discourse Revisited.” NORA – Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research 13 (2): 78–89.

Leathwood, C. 2013. “Re/presenting Intellectual Subjectivity: Gender and Visual Imagery in the Field of Higher Education.” Gender and Education 25 (2): 133–154.

León Rosales, R. 2010. Vid Framtidens Hitersta Gräns: Om Maskulina Elevpositioner I En Multietnisk Skola [At the Hither Side of the Future: Masculine Pupil Positions in a Multi- ethnic School]. diss., Stockholm: Mångkulturellt centrum.

Levontin, L., E. Halperin, and C. S. Dweck. 2013. “Implicit Theories Block Negative Attributions about a Longstanding Adversary: The Case of Israelis and Arabs.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 49 (4): 670–675.

Mac an Ghaill, M. 1994. The Making of Men: Masculinities, Sexualities and Schooling.

Buckingham: Open University Press.

Mendick, H. 2006. Masculinities and Mathematics. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Mercer, S., and S. Ryan. 2010. “A Mindset for EFL: Learners’ Beliefs about the Role of

Natural Talent.” ELT Journal 64 (4): 436–444.

Munday, J. 2006. “Identity in Focus: The Use of Focus Groups to Study the Construction of Collective Identity.” Sociology 40 (1): 89–105.

Murphy, M. C., and C. S. Dweck. 2010. “A Culture of Genius: How an Organization’s Lay Theory Shapes People’s Cognition, Affect, and Behavior.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 36 (3): 283–296.

Nisbett, R. E., J. Aronson, C. Blair, W. Dickens, J. Flynn, D. F. Halpern, and E. Turkheimer. 2012. “Intelligence: New Findings and Theoretical Developments.” American Psycholo- gist 67 (2): 130–159.

Nyström, A.-S. 2012a. “Att Synas Och Lära Utan Att Synas Lära. En Studie Om Underpres- tation Och Privilegierade Unga Mäns Identitetsförhandlingar I Gymnasieskolan [To be Seen and to Learn, without Being seen to Learn. A Study of Under-achievement and Identity-negotiation among Privileged Young Men in Upper-secondary School].” diss., Uppsala universitet, Uppsala, Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis. Studia Sociologica Upsaliensia 59.

Nyström, A.-S. 2012b. “Mellan Empati Och Kritisk Granskning?: Forskningsdeltagande Som Risk [Between Empathy and Critical Scrutiny – Research Participation from a Risk Perspective].” In Etiska Dilemman: Forskningsdeltagande, Samtycke Och Utsatthet [Ethical Dilemmas: Research participation, Consent, and Vulnerability], edited by H. Kalman and V. Lövgren, 71–86. Gleerups: Malmö.

Nyström, A.-S. 2014. “Negotiating Achievement: Students’ Gendered and Classed Construc- tions of (Un)Equal Ability.” In Educational Inequalities: Difference and Diversity in Schools and Higher Education, edited by U. Maylor and K. Bhopal, 87–101. London: Routledge.

Öhrn, E., and G. Weiner. 2009. “The Sound of Silence! Reflections on Inclusion and Exclu- sion in the Field of Gender and Education.” Gender and Education 21 (4): 423–430.

Pease, B. 2010. Undoing Privilege: Unearned Advantage in a Divided World. London: Zed. Power, S., T. Edwards, G. Whity, and V. Wigfall. 2003. Education and the Middle Class.

Buckingham: Open University Press.

Purvis, J. 1991. A History of Women’s Education in England. Milton Keynes: Open Univer- sity Press.

Rattan, A., C. Good, and C. S. Dweck. 2012. ““It’s Ok – Not Everyone Can Be Good at Math”: Instructors with an Entity Theory Comfort (and Demotivate) Students.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48 (3): 731–737.

Read, B., B. Francis, and C. Skelton. 2011. “Gender, Popularity and Notions of in/ Authenticity amongst 12-Year-Old to 13-Year-Old School Girls.” British Journal of Sociology of Education 32 (2): 169–183.

Reay, D., G. Crozier, and D. James. 2011. White Middle Class Identities and Urban School- ing. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Renold, E., and A. Allan. 2006. “Bright and Beautiful: High Achieving Girls, Ambivalent Femininities, and the Feminization of Success in the Primary School.” Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education 27 (4): 457–473.

Rezaei, A. 2012. “Can Self-efficacy and Self-confidence Explain Iranian Female Students’ Academic Achievement?” Gender and Education 24 (4): 393–409.

Riegle-Crumb, C., and M. Humphries. 2012. “Exploring Bias in Math Teachers’ Perceptions of Students’ Ability by Gender and Race/Ethnicity.” Gender and Society 26 (2): 290–322.

Sherriff, N. S. 2007. “Peer Group Cultures and Social Identity: An Integrated Approach to Understanding Masculinities1.” British Educational Research Journal 33 (3): 349–370.

Skelton, C., and B. Francis. 2012. “The ‘Renaissance Child’: High Achievement and Gender in Late Modernity.” International Journal of Inclusive Education 16 (4): 441–459.

Stables, A., K. Murakami, S. McIntosh, and S. Martin. 2014. “Conceptions of Effort among Students, Teachers and Parents within an English Secondary School.” Research Papers in Education. 29 (5): 626–648.

Sternberg, R. 2005. “Intelligence, Competence, and Expertise.” In The Handbook of Compe- tence and Motivation, edited by A. Elliot and C. S. Dweck, 15–30. New York: Guilford Press.

Stevenson, H., C. Chen, and S. Lee. 1993. “Mathematics Achievement of Chinese, Japanese, and American Children: Ten Years Later.” Science 259 (5091): 53–58.

Tsay, C. J., and M. R. Banaji. 2011. “Naturals and Strivers: Preferences and Beliefs about Sources of Achievement.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47: 460–465.

Tyler, I. 2008. “Chav Mum Chav Scum.” Feminist Media Studies 8 (1): 17–34.

UNESCO. 2008. Education for All by 2015: Will We Make It? Paris: UNESCO. Accessed July 2013. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001548/154820e.pdf

Walford, G. 1986. Life in Public Schools. London: Virago.

Walkerdine, V. 1989. Counting Girls out: Girls and Mathematics. London: Falmer.