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[First document (photograph)] Syracuse Herald-Journal, Syracuse, New York, front page, February 26, 1948 On February 25, 1948, Communist Party forces seized control of the Czechoslovakian government in a bloodless coup. Although the Soviet Union had not directly participated in the takeover, the events in Czechoslovakia, along with growing tensions in Berlin, moved Congress to support a defense pact to protect its allies in Western Europe from possible Soviet aggression. Serial and Government Publications Division, Library of Congress [Second document] Letter from President Harry S. Truman to the Senate of the United States, April 12, 1949 President Harry S. Truman sent this letter to the Senate requesting that it consent to ratification of the North Atlantic Treaty, concluding it would achieve “a just and enduring peace.” The Senate voted in favor of ratification 82 to 13 on July 21, 1949. The North Atlantic Treaty was the first peacetime military alliance the United States entered into outside of the Western Hemisphere. Records of the U.S. Senate, National Archives and Records Administration [Third document] Statement by Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg of Michigan in support of the North Atlantic Treaty, July 6, 1949 Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg of Michigan persuasively assured Senate colleagues that the North Atlantic Treaty was limited in scope and would not undermine Congress’s power to declare war. In this letter to Vice President Alben Barkley, president of the Senate, he outlined the reasons the Senate should support the treaty, among them that it would safeguard collective security, democracy, and the rule of law. Records of the U.S. Senate, National Archives and Records Administration [Specific quote from Third document] My view is that this Treaty is the most sensible, powerful, practicable and economical step the United States can now take in the realistic interest of its own security [Fourth document (photograph)] Atlantic Pact, drawing by Clifford Berryman, July 14, 1949 Cartoonist Clifford Berryman captured the close bipartisan relationship between the Senate’s two top foreign policy leaders—Senator Tom Connally, Democrat of Texas, and Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg, Republican of Michigan—during consideration of the North Atlantic Treaty. Both senators strongly advocated for its approval. U.S. Senate Collection, Center for Legislative Archives, National Archives and Records Administration World War II: A World Transformed Stop #4 [Congressional Spotlight, Panel Display (left side of panel] Representative Sol Bloom of New York Elected in 1922, Representative Sol Bloom of New York (1870–1949) served in Congress until his death in 1949. Partnering with Representative Charles A. Eaton of New Jersey, Bloom chaired or served as ranking member of the House Foreign Affairs Committee between 1939 and 1949. Bloom was one of eight U.S. delegates at the conference that established the United Nations in 1945. A strong supporter of the Marshall Plan, Representative Bloom stated, “the few dollars, although it may seem like a lot of money, to bring civilization back to its proper place . . . will bring us to the greatest return when compared to anything that we could possibly do at the present moment.” [Photo on Panel] Representative Sol Bloom of New York (detail), photograph by Harris & Ewing, n.d. Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress [Congressional Spotlight, Panel Display (right side of panel] Senator Tom Connally of Texas Senator Tom Connally of Texas (1877–1963) served 35 years in Congress, from 1917 to 1953. A supporter of U.S. participation in the League of Nations following World War I, Connally was vice chairman of the U.S. delegation to the inaugural United Nations gathering in San Francisco, California, in 1945. He was also a member of the American delegation at the first meetings of the U.N. General Assembly. In partnership with Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg of Michigan as leaders of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Connally was instrumental in guiding the U.N. Charter, the Greek and Turkish Aid Act, the Marshall Plan, and the North Atlantic Treaty through the Senate. [Photo on Panel] Senator Tom Connally of Texas, photograph, n.d. Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress Stop # 5 Congress and the World Wars World War I (1914–1918) and World War II (1939–1945) were cataclysmic events during the twentieth century. Congress debated new international commitments and chose dramatically new courses in the aftermath of each world war, defining American foreign policy for the rest of the century. Domestically, Congress passed landmark legislation affecting veterans, women, American Indians, and the structure of the federal government. It also investigated “red scares” with controversial results. As Congress faced the challenges of a post-war world—in 1918 and again in 1945—it considered and enacted legislation that would change the lives of millions of Americans. World War II: A Nation Transformed World War II presented Congress with new and unique challenges in the post-war years. Congress passed legislation to enable veterans to buy homes and afford higher education; expand the right of women to serve in the military; restructure the national security establishment; and settle historic land claims by American Indians. Congress also dramatically expanded its investigation into potential communist subversion in the United States. To preserve the experiences of World War II veterans and help Americans better understand the realities of war, Congress passed the Veterans’ Oral History Project Act in 2000. [Photograph and CAPTION ON PANEL associated with the Introduction to stop #5] American servicemen and women gather in front of "Rainbow Corner" Red Cross club in Paris to celebrate the unconditional surrender of the Japanese (detail), photograph, August 15, 1945 (male narrator) The next stop, Number 100, is located in the same hallway. Cross over to the perimeter wall, opposite the marble wall, and beyond the support columns that stand in the hallway. The exhibit starts beside the entrance to Exhibition Hall. This is the beginning of the specific documents on display in the six cases associated with the topic of World War II: A Nation Transformed [Glass Case #1] Establishing the G.I. Bill of Rights After its unanimous approval by the House and Senate, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the G.I. Bill of Rights into law on June 22, 1944. The legislation provided returning soldiers with unemployment insurance, money for post-secondary education and job training, and low-interest mortgages and loans to ease their transition into civilian life. By 1951 nearly 8 million veterans had received educational and training benefits, and 2.4 million had received loans for homes, farms, and businesses. Subsequent legislation would extend benefits to all who served in later conflicts. [Quote on Panel] This measure has for its purpose extending full justice and educational opportunities to the veterans of this war who have defended the Republic with their life and blood. Representative Karl M. Le Compte of Iowa, Speech to the U.S. House of Representatives, May 12, 1944 [First document] S. 1767, A Bill to provide Federal Government aid for the readjustment in civilian life of returning World War II veterans (Servicemen’s Readjustment Act or the G.I. Bill of Rights), March 17, 1944 Congress approved the G.I. Bill of Rights, officially known as the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act, to reduce the risk of a postwar economic depression and widespread unemployment when veterans returned from overseas. The act was later amended to offer benefits to combat veterans of the Korean and Vietnam Wars; it has since been extended to all who have served in the armed forces. Records of the U.S. Senate, National Archives and Records Administration [Second document (photograph)] Veterans—Prepare for Your Future thru Educational Training, poster, 1942–45 The G.I. Bill’s financial assistance for educational training was a notable development in the history of veterans’ benefits. After previous wars, Congress had generally approved extra pay, government insurance, or cash bonuses for returning soldiers. During the first six years of the original G.I. Bill, more than 2.2 million veterans attended college or university using the act’s education benefits. Records of the Office of Government Reports, National Archives and Records Administration [Third document (photograph)] World War II veteran Don Balfour registering for classes under the G.I. Bill, George Washington University, Washington, D.C., photograph 1944 Although millions of returned soldiers utilized the G.I. Bill, not all eligible Americans benefitted. The G.I. Bill did not bar women or African Americans from its benefits, but discriminatory practices in implementing the legislation often excluded these groups of veterans. George Washington University [Fourth document] The G.I. Bill of Rights and How It Works, by Army Service Forces, May 1, 1948 Enacted 13 months before the end of World War II, the G.I. Bill has been praised as one of the most important pieces of legislation in the twentieth century. This 16-page pamphlet explained to veterans how the various benefits worked and included a copy of the legislation. General Collections, Library of Congress [Glass Case #2] The Veterans History Project Seeking to preserve the compelling stories and experiences of American war veterans, Congress passed the Veterans’ Oral History Project Act in 2000. The act created the Veterans History Project (VHP) at the Library of Congress, which collects, preserves, and makes accessible the personal accounts of American war veterans, so that future generations can hear directly from veterans and better understand the realities of war. To date, the VHP has archived more than 100,000 individual collections from veterans of both world wars, as well as 15 subsequent military conflicts. [Quote on Panel associated with Introduction to this Glass Case] It is in the Nation’s best interest to collect and catalog oral histories of American war veterans so that . . . Americans will always remember those who served in war and may learn first-hand of the heroics, tediousness, horrors, and triumphs of war. Veterans’ Oral History Project Act, October 27, 2000 [First document] Veterans’ Oral History Project Act, October 27, 2000 Congress authorized the Veterans History Project to capture the memories and stories of thousands of veterans for future generations. More than 21 million Americans served in both world wars. Six million veterans of World War II were alive in 2000. By 2016 only 620,000 World War II veterans remained, and their number is rapidly diminishing. General Records of the U.S. Government, National Archives and Records Administration [Second document] V-mail letter from Robert B. Ware to his wife Martha W. Ware, April 13, 1943 [Third document] Telegram to Martha W. Ware, July 17, 1944 Robert B. Ware volunteered for the Virginia National Guard in 1940 and was assigned to the Army’s 104th Medical Battalion. On D-Day—June 6, 1944—he launched with one of the first waves of the invasion and was killed while disembarking from his landing craft. Ware’s wife received word of his death on August 5, 1944. Veterans History Project, Library of Congress [Fourth document] Captain Robert B. Ware in uniform in England, photograph, March 1943 Veterans History Project, Library of Congress [Glass Case #3] The National Security Act In the aftermath of World War II, Congress passed legislation to modernize the U.S. military and intelligence communities. Known as the National Security Act of 1947, the act merged the Army, Navy, and newly created Air Force into a unified National Military Establishment headed by a secretary of defense. It also created the National Security Council, the Central Intelligence Agency, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. By approving the act, Congress established an institution to coordinate U.S. defense policy throughout the Cold War era. [Freestanding Quote Associated with introduction to this Glass Case] The experiences of the war just concluded have proven conclusively that we must maintain in time of peace an adequate organization of the national defense readily available to the needs of war on short notice. National Security Act of 1947, House Report 80-961, 1947 [First document] S. 758, An Act to promote the national security by providing for a National Security Organization . . . (National Security Act), July 15, 1947 It took three years of sometimes contentious debate for Congress to enact the National Security Act of 1947. Support for unification of the military establishment initially was slim, as Congress had concerns over the concentration of too much power in the hands of too few and reduced congressional control over the military. Interservice disputes over strategic and command issues also slowed the bill’s progress. Records of the U.S. House of Representatives, National Archives and Records Administration [Second document] The New Organization of National Defense, chart accompanying the statement of Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson before the Armed Services Committee of the U.S. Senate, March 18, 1947 Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson presented this chart to Congress, outlining a new organization for national defense during hearings on the National Security Act. The chart showed the restructuring of the military establishment, including the creation of a civilian secretary of defense. Amendments to the act in 1949 changed the name “National Military Establishment” to the Department of Defense. Records of the U.S. House of Representatives, National Archives and Records Administration [Third document] Letter from James Forrestal to Representative Clare E. Hoffman of Michigan, June 21, 1947 Disputes over command and control of forces during World War II convinced American military leaders that centralized cooperation between branches of the armed services was essential for future U.S. security. In this letter, Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal, initially opposed to unification, outlined his support for national security legislation. The Senate confirmed Forrestal as the first secretary of defense in September 1947. Records of the U.S. House of Representatives, National Archives and Records Administration [Selected quote from third document] Only through such a unified organization can we achieve, during time of peace, the balance and common action among our military services with which adequately to meet the challenge of present conditions [Fourth document] Need Any Office Equipment? drawing by Herbert Block, August 2, 1947 Cartoonist Herbert Block (Herblock) captured the changing fortunes of postwar government agencies. While Congress authorized major legislation establishing a new, unified military structure and confirming the first secretary of defense (James Forrestal), it also approved cuts as deep as 40 percent in some programs at the Department of Labor, headed by former Senator Lewis B. Schwellenbach of Washington. Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress [Glass Case # 4] The Women’s Armed Services Integration Act Congress gave members of the Women’s Army Corps (WAC), a branch of the U.S. Army, full service status during World War II. However, the legislation that did so was set to expire in 1948. As early as 1946, Army leaders requested that enlisted women be made a permanent part of the Army. Following two years of legislative debate, Congress passed the Women’s Armed Services Integration Act in 1948. The act granted women the right to serve as permanent, regular members of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and the recently formed Air Force. [Freestanding Quote Associated with introduction to this Glass Case] [The] issue is simple—either the armed services have a permanent need of women officers and enlisted women or they do not. If they do, then women must be given permanent status. Representative Margaret Chase Smith of Maine, Speech to the U.S. House of Representatives, April 6, 1948 [First document] For Your Country’s Sake Today—For Your Own Sake Tomorrow, poster, 1942–45 During World War II, Congress approved legislation that created opportunities for women to serve in four special units in the armed forces: the Women's Army Corps (WAC), the Navy Women's Reserve (WAVES), the Marine Corps Women's Reserve (WR), and the Coast Guard Women Reserves (SPARS). These units were created for the duration of the war only. Records of the Office of Government Reports, National Archives and Records Administration [Second document] S. 1641, A Bill to establish the Women's Army Corps . . . [and] to authorize the enlistment and appointment of women in the . . . Navy and Marine Corps . . . (Women's Armed Services Integration Act), July 16, 1947 The Women’s Armed Services Integration Act granted women the right to serve as regular, permanent members of the armed services for the first time. The number of women who could serve was capped at two percent of all personnel and prohibited their full participation in combat. Despite these restrictions, the act represented a turning point for women’s right to defend their country. Records of the U.S. Senate, National Archives and Records Administration [Third document] Letter from Edith L. Stallings to the Chairman of the House Armed Forces Service Committee, March 11, 1948 Edith L. Stallings joined the Navy Women's Reserve (WAVES) in 1942. She served in administrative positions through 1947, when she became a dean at the University of Georgia. Rising Cold War tensions and the Army’s inability to recruit enough male volunteers convinced a reluctant Congress to permit women to serve as permanent members of the regular Army. Records of the U.S. House of Representatives, National Archives and Records Administration [Fourth document (photograph)] Secretary of Defense James Forrestal congratulates Colonel Geraldine May, Colonel Mary A. Hallaren, Captain Joy Bright Hancock, and Major Julia E. Hamblet after passage of the Women’s Armed Services Integration Act (detail), photograph by U.S. Army Signal Corps, 1948 Pictured with the defense secretary are four women who served as pioneers in the armed forces during World War II and were advocates for women’s equality in the military. They represented the first director of Women in the Air Force, the director of the Women’s Army Corps, one of the Navy’s first woman officers, and the director of the Marine Corps Women’s Reserve. Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress [Glass Case #5] The Indian Claims Commission Act In part to show gratitude to American Indians who served in World War II, Congress passed the Indian Claims Commission Act in 1946. The act established a special, temporary commission to hear and decide land claim cases of American Indians, who believed the federal government had treated them unjustly through treaty violations, confiscation of land, and other grievances. Tribes who won claims would receive monetary awards as compensation. Congress’s action capped years of effort by American Indians and sympathetic allies to resolve long-standing land claim cases fairly. [Freestanding Quote Associated with introduction to this Glass Case] Since 1924, when the last noncitizen Indian became an American citizen . . . there has been no reason . . . why Indians should not have the same right to sue in the Court of Claims as anyone else. Representative Henry (“Scoop”) Jackson of Washington, Statement on H.R. 4497, May 20, 1946 [First document] H.R. 4497, An Act to create an Indian Claims Commission . . . , May 21, 1946 Prior to 1946, American Indians had to request special authority from Congress to pursue monetary damages against the U.S. government in the Court of Claims. This process often took years. By creating the Indian Claims Commission, Congress hoped to address American Indians’ claims against the government more expeditiously and justly. The government could authorize monetary awards only; return of seized land was prohibited. Records of the U.S. Senate, National Archives and Records Administration [Second document] Letter from Tom-Pee-Saw to Senator Joseph O’Mahoney of Wyoming, June 8, 1946 In this letter to Senator Joseph O’Mahoney of Wyoming, chairman of the Committee on Indian Affairs, Tom-Pee-Saw urged passage of the Indian claims bill, noting 500 American Indians made the “Supreme Sacrifice” during World War II, but lacked justice at home. Nearly all federally recognized tribal nations filed land claims with the Indian Claims Commission during its existence from 1946 to 1978. Records of the U.S. Senate, National Archives and Records Administration [Glass Case #6] The House Un-American Activities Committee Both world wars raised concerns in Congress about subversive threats to the nation. As tensions rose between the United States and the Soviet Union following World War II, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) conducted prominent hearings to investigate allegations that communists disloyal to the United States had infiltrated the government, the entertainment industry, and other organizations. While critics complained that HUAC’s investigations trampled on citizens’ rights, supporters believed the committee’s actions were justified, given threats to national security at the time. [Freestanding Quote Associated with introduction to this Glass Case] I am not and never have been a member of the Communist Party. Alger Hiss, Statement to the House Un-American Activities Committee, August 5, 1948 [First document] Summons from the U.S. House of Representatives Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) to Alger Hiss, August 17, 1948 In 1948 Whittaker Chambers, a self-confessed former member of the Communist Party, appeared before HUAC and accused Alger Hiss, a former high-ranking State Department official, of being a Soviet spy. HUAC sent this summons to Hiss to respond to the charges. HUAC’s investigation eventually resulted in Hiss's conviction for perjury in connection with the allegation of spying, although Hiss maintained his innocence. 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