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[Fourth Document (photograph] Lenin’s Dream, drawing by Clifford Berryman, August 14, 1920 Many Americans were uneasy about the global repercussions of the 1917 Russian Revolution, leading to fears of a “Red Scare.” Clifford Berryman portrayed Russian communist leader Vladimir Lenin's dream of world conquest in this cartoon, with Lenin in a crown atop the earth, holding the war-god Mars on a leash. It was published as Soviet forces advanced into Poland in a post-World War I conflict. U.S. Senate Collection, Center for Legislative Archives, National Archives and Records Administration [Fifth Document] Petition from residents of New York to Representative Albert Johnson of Washington, March 29, 1924 The United States welcomed more than 14 million immigrants from 1900 to 1914. Some Americans, especially those in urban centers where poverty became more visible, worried about limited resources and feared that the influx was upsetting the nation’s ethnic composition. They pressured Congress to curtail immigration. This petition was sent to Representative Albert Johnson of Washington, chairman of the House Committee on Immigration. Records of the U.S. House of Representatives, National Archives and Records Administration [Sixth Document] H.R. 7995, An Act to limit the immigration of aliens into the United States . . . (Johnson-Reed Act), April 10, 1924 Congress enacted legislation in 1921 that set temporary annual quotas for immigrants based on their country of origin. As public pressure for added restrictions grew, Congress passed this bill in 1924, establishing permanent annual quotas for immigrants. Congress’s actions significantly reduced immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe and all but prohibited immigration from Asia and the Arab world.
Until now we have proceeded upon the theory that America was “the refuge of the oppressed of all nations,” and we have indulged the belief that upon their arrival here all immigrants were fused by the “melting pot” into a distinctive American type. “America of the Melting Pot Comes to End,” The New York Times, April 27, 1924 [Seventh document] Representative Albert Johnson of Washington, photograph by Harris & Ewing, ca. 1905–1945 Representative Albert Johnson of Washington was instrumental to the passage of restrictive immigrant measures in the 1920s and chief author of the 1924 immigration act. It limited the number of immigrants that could be admitted to the United States annually to two percent of individuals of each nationality in the country in 1890, before large numbers of immigrants arrived from Southern and Eastern Europe. Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress [Glass Case #2] Granting Citizenship to American Indians On June 2, 1924, Congress passed the Indian Citizenship Act, which was also known as the Snyder Act. It was named after the bill’s sponsor, Representative Homer P. Snyder of New York. The act granted citizenship to all American Indians born in the United States. American Indians had volunteered and served in World War I in large numbers, and citizenship was seen in part as a reward for their military service. At the time, 125,000 out of an estimated population of 300,000 American Indians were not U.S. citizens. [Quote on Panel associated with Introduction to this Glass Case] I am an Indian and never had any Experience in a war before, but I realize that I was doing my duty as a patriot and was fighting to save Democracy and do hope that in the future we Indian’s may Enjoy freedom which we Indian’s are always denied. Joe High Elk, Cheyenne River Sioux, List of Indians in the World War Questionnaire, ca. 1919–1920
Joe High Elk, Cheyenne River Sioux, List of Indians in the World War Questionnaire, ca. 1919–1920 Joe High Elk enlisted in the Army during World War I and served as a gunner in France. In this questionnaire, he recalled how he fought in battles at Château Thierry, the Argonne Forest, and Saint-Mihiel. American Indian rights advocate Joseph Dixon distributed the questionnaires to document American Indian soldiers’ patriotism and loyalty during the war and champion their right to citizenship.
Petition from residents of Columbus, Ohio, regarding citizenship for American Indians, May 1924 While citizens of their own sovereign tribes, most American Indians were historically excluded from U.S. citizenship. In this petition, nine individuals from Ohio stated that the Great War gave further “proof” of Indians’ bravery and loyalty and called for citizenship to be granted to all American Indians. Records of the U.S. Senate, National Archives and Records Administration [Fourth Document] An Act to Authorize the Secretary of the Interior to issue certificates of citizenship to Indians, June 2, 1924 Before 1924 citizenship was not available to all American Indians. Some had acquired citizenship through military service, marriage, receipt of federal land, or special treaties or statutes. Forty percent were not citizens, however, and existing laws barred them from the naturalization processes open to foreigners. The Indian Citizenship Act confirmed citizenship for all American Indians born in the United States. General Records of the U.S. Government, National Archives and Records Administration [Fifth Document] The North American Indian in the World War, map by the Office of the Adjutant-General of the Army, July 1925 More than 12,000 American Indians served in the U.S. Army in Europe during World War I. This map, produced by the Army after the war, shows American Indian participation, graves, and military decorations awarded in France and Belgium. Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress [Glass Case #3] Managing the Federal Budget After World War I, the federal government grew exponentially due to its more active role in military and foreign policy. As federal spending rose, Congress sought to rationalize its decision-making process regarding government revenues and expenditures. Congress enacted the Budget and Accounting Act, which established a budget process for the executive branch and shifted many budgetary powers from Congress to the president. The 1921 act, as amended, remains the legislative basis for the nation’s executive budgetary system [Graphic at top of case] President Warren G. Harding Addressing the Budget Committee, Memorial Continental Hall, Washington, D.C. (detail), photograph by the National Photo Company, August 18, 1923 Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress [First Document] S. 1084, A Bill to provide a national budget system and an independent audit of Government accounts . . . (Budget and Accounting Act), April 25, 1921 Congress believed receiving a consolidated budget proposal from the president each year would help coordinate its spending decisions. The Budget and Accounting Act established the Bureau of the Budget in the executive branch to assist the president in crafting budget recommendations to Congress. It also created the legislative General Accounting Office, the non-partisan auditing authority of the federal government. Records of the U.S. Senate, National Archives and Records Administration [Selected Quote from First Document] Sec. 201. That the President shall transmit to Congress on the first day of each regular session, the Budget, which shall set forth in summary and in detail: [Second Document] Message of the President of the United States Transmitting the Budget for the Service of the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1923, December 5, 1921 President Warren G. Harding was the first president who had to submit a federal budget proposal to Congress under the Budget and Accounting Act. In his budget submission for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1923, President Harding proposed government expenditures of approximately $3.5 billion dollars ($49.4 billion in 2017 dollars). U.S. Senate Library [Third Document] Budget of the U.S. Government, Fiscal Year 2017, published by the Office of Management and Budget, 2016 Under current law, the president must submit a budget proposal to Congress every year by the first Monday in February. The budget submitted to Congress for fiscal year 2017 was approximately $4.1 trillion dollars. Architect of the Capitol [Glass Case #4] Women and the Vote Thousands of women supported the war effort during World War I, from defense industry workers to Red Cross volunteers. Concurrently, women’s rights activists pressed Congress for the right to vote, highlighting women’s patriotism and service during wartime. Congress approved a resolution in 1919 proposing a Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution to grant women suffrage. Following the amendment’s ratification in 1920, women could legally vote in national elections for the first time, though many were still limited in exercising the vote by state laws based on race. [Freestanding Quote on Panel at top of Case] Not only as workers but as voters, the war has called women over the top. Harriot Stanton Blatch, Mobilizing Woman-Power, 1918 [First Document (Photograph)] Suffrage Leader Alice Paul Standing above Ratification Banner, Washington, D.C., photograph by the National Photo Company, August 18, 1920 Manuscript Division, Library of Congress [Second Document] As a War Measure, poster by National Woman Suffrage Publishing Company, Inc., ca. 1918 U.S. entry into World War I prompted women’s suffrage groups to initiate new strategies for gaining public support for the vote for women. This poster, created by one of the country’s largest pro-suffrage groups, linked women’s substantial wartime service to the expectation that women should get the vote in exchange for their contributions. Suffrage Ephemera Collection, Special Collections Department, Bryn Mawr College Library (facsimile) [Third Document] H.J. Res. 1, Joint Resolution proposing an amendment to the Constitution extending the right of suffrage to women, May 28, 1919 On May 28, 1919, the House voted 304 to 89 to approve the resolution proposing an amendment to the Constitution to grant women suffrage. The Senate followed suit on June 4 with a vote of 56 to 25. The votes met the two-thirds requirement to approve an amendment before sending it to the states for ratification. Records of the U.S. Senate, National Archives and Records Administration [Glass Case #5] The Soldiers Bonus Act After World War I, veterans’ organizations lobbied Congress for extra pay to compensate returned soldiers for differences between military pay and the higher civilian pay during wartime. In 1924 Congress approved the World War Adjusted Compensation Act, known as the Bonus Act, to provide World War I veterans with bonuses. The legislation and the subsequent “Bonus March” on the Capitol in 1932 highlighted the Great Depression’s economic impact on veterans, and the act helped lay the foundation for the G.I. Bill of Rights in 1944. [Quote on Panel associated with Introduction to this Glass Case] I deem it is not necessary for me to tell of the splendid service of our soldiers in the World War. They did splendid work, displayed wonderful courage, and made great sacrifices. They won the admiration and applause of the civilized world. . . . I believe the World War veterans are fairly and justly entitled to the adjusted compensation given in the bill. Senator Charles Curtis of Kansas, Speech to the U.S. Senate, April 19, 1924 [First Document] H.R. 7959, An Act to provide adjusted compensation for veterans of the World War . . . (Bonus Act), April 10, 1924 The Bonus Act awarded World War I veterans additional pay in various forms, with only limited payments available immediately. Veterans were given $1 for each day of service in the United States, and $1.25 for each day of service overseas. Bonuses totaling $50 or less were paid in cash, but bonuses over $50 were awarded as certificates payable in 20 years to limit government spending. Records of the U.S. Senate, National Archives and Records Administration [Second Document] Letter from Fred G. Frnka, December 8, 1931 World War I veterans, like many Americans, experienced unemployment and poverty during the Great Depression in the 1930s. In this letter to Congress transcribed by his 11-year-old daughter, a World War I veteran pleaded for full and immediate payment of his war bonus for the sake of his family, as he had sacrificed for the nation.
I am in favor of the payment in full, as I am married and have four children, and it would be a great help to me . . . . I have made my sacrifice. So help me when I am in need of help [Third Document] Petition from the Disabled Americans of the Veterans of the World War, ca. 1932 Under the terms of the Bonus Act, payments more than $50 were awarded to World War I veterans as certificates payable in 20 years. During the Great Depression, disabled veterans, desperate for economic relief, sent this petition to Congress asking for full and immediate cash payment of these larger bonuses, known as “adjusted compensation certificates.” Congress eventually authorized early payments in 1936.
I . . . had first-hand knowledge of the brave sacrifices made by American forces during the First World War, and I wanted America, as a beacon of freedom and democracy, to have her own memorial to honor the Unknown Soldier. Representative Hamilton Fish of New York, Hamilton Fish: Memoir of an American Patriot, 1991 [First Document (photograph)] General Mark Hersey and Captain Hamilton Fish (detail), photograph by George Grantham Bain, ca. 1917 Captain Hamilton Fish (right) was elected to Congress in 1920 from New York and introduced the resolution to create an Unknown Solider memorial. Fish served as an officer in the 369th U.S. Infantry Regiment, nicknamed the “Harlem Hellfighters.” They spent more days on the front lines than any other regiment and were the first Allied regiment to reach the Rhine River. Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress [Second Document] Return of Body of Unknown American Who Lost His Life during World War . . . , February 1, 1921 Some members of Congress suggested that the Unknown Soldier could be buried in the tomb at the U.S. Capitol that was originally meant for President George Washington. Congress ultimately agreed, however, that the remains should lie in state in the Capitol Rotunda before being laid to rest in a tomb at Arlington National Cemetery. Publications of the U.S. Government, National Archives and Records Administration [Selected Quote from Second Document] He should not be taken from any particular battlefield, but should be so chosen that nobody would know his identification or the battlefield he comes from. He should represent in himself the North, the South, the East, and the West. Representative Hamilton Fish of New York, Return of Body of Unknown American Who Lost His Life during World War . . . , February 1, 1921 [Third Document] H.J. Res. 426, Joint Resolution providing for the bringing to the United States of the body of an unknown American . . . for the burial of the remains . . . , March 2, 1921 To carry out Congress’s resolution to create an Unknown Soldier memorial, four unknown World War I soldiers were randomly exhumed from four American cemeteries in France. U.S. Army Sergeant Edward F. Younger, a World War I veteran, chose one of the men for burial in the U.S. monument. The other three soldiers were reburied as unknowns in the Meuse-Argonne American Cemetery in France. Records of the U.S. House of Representatives, National Archives and Records Administration [Fourth Document (photograph)] General John J. Pershing Saluting the Unknown Soldier in the U.S. Capitol Rotunda (detail), photograph by the National Photo Company, November 9, 1921 After arriving by ship from Europe and before entombing at Arlington National Cemetery, the casket of the Unknown Soldier lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda from November 9, 1921, to November 11, 1921. An estimated 90,000 visitors, including war mothers, Supreme Court justices, and ambassadors of foreign nations came to pay their respects. Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress [Fifth Document (photograph)] Unknown Soldier’s Tomb with Sentry, Arlington National Cemetery, photograph by A. S. Blom, ca. 1932 The Unknown Soldier was laid to rest at Arlington National Cemetery on November 11, 1921. Unknown soldiers from World War II and the Korean War were entombed in 1958 and from the Vietnam War in 1984 (the latter’s remains were exhumed, identified, and returned to family in 1998). An honor guard has guarded the tomb 24 hours a day since 1937. Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress
Stop #38 World War I: A World Transformed [Congressional Spotlight, Panel Display (left side of panel] Representative Hamilton Fish of New York Representative Hamilton Fish of New York (1888–1991) volunteered for service in the U.S. Army when World War I began and was commissioned captain of Company K, 15th New York National Guard Regiment (the legendary “Harlem Hellfighters”). After the war, Fish helped organize the American Legion and was elected to Congress in 1920. As the ranking Republican on the House Foreign Affairs Committee, Representative Fish introduced the resolution providing for burial of an Unknown Soldier in Arlington National Cemetery and was a strong proponent of the World War Adjusted Compensation Act (Bonus Act). A fervent advocate for non-intervention prior to American entry in World War II, Fish served in Congress until 1945. [Photo on Panel] Representative Hamilton Fish of New York (detail), photograph, 1920 Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress [Congressional Spotlight, Panel Display (right side of panel] Senator Charles Curtis of Kansas Senator Charles Curtis of Kansas (1860–1936) served in Congress for 34 years (14 years in the House; 20 years in the Senate). Curtis had American Indian ancestry and was one-eighth Kaw. He was elected as the Senate Majority Whip in 1915 and became Senate Majority Leader in 1925. Senator Curtis helped organize opposition to the Treaty of Versailles and was one of the first national legislators to advocate for woman suffrage. In 1928 Curtis ran for vice president on the ticket with Herbert Hoover. They won in a landslide victory. [Photo on Panel] Senator Charles Curtis of Kansas (detail), photograph, ca. 1932 Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress Congress and the World Wars World War I (1914–1918) and World War II (1939–1945) were cataclysmic events during the twentieth century. Congress debated new international commitments and chose dramatically new courses in the aftermath of each world war, defining American foreign policy for the rest of the century. Domestically, Congress passed landmark legislation affecting veterans, women, American Indians, and the structure of the federal government. It also investigated “red scares” with controversial results. As Congress faced the challenges of a post-war world—in 1918 and again in 1945—it considered and enacted legislation that would change the lives of millions of Americans. Stop #39 World War I: A World Transformed World War I ended several empires and shifted international boundaries. When President Woodrow Wilson attended the post-war Paris Peace Conference in 1919 to negotiate a peace treaty, he chose not to include members of Congress in his delegation, even though the Senate would ultimately decide whether or not the United States would approve the treaty. Upon Wilson’s return, the Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles after a lengthy and contentious debate, symbolizing Congress’s uncertainty regarding the United States’ newfound status as a world power. [Photograph ON PANEL— associated with the Introduction to stop #39] The Signing of the Treaty of Peace at Versailles, June 28th, 1919, painting by J. Finnemore, ca. 1919 Directory: sites -> default -> files files -> Answer True False 2 points Question 2 files -> Northern England’s set-jetting locations files -> Nstructions for Acquiring Excess Equipment online, through the 1033 Program files -> Occupational health and safety files -> The Black Panther Party’s Ten Point Program files -> International programs roel profile files -> Fermi Questions a guide for Teachers, Students, and Event Supervisors Lloyd Abrams, Ph. D. DuPont Company, cr&D/ccas experimental Station Wilmington, de 19880 files -> Personal Information Name: Maha Al-Ammari Nationality: Saudi Relationship Status Download 406.2 Kb. Share with your friends:
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